Neuroteratology and Animal Modeling of Brain Disorders

Astrocyte activation and reactive gliosis accompany most of the pathologies in the brain, spinal cord, and retina. Reactive gliosis has been described as constitutive, graded, multi-stage, and evolutionary conserved defensive astroglial reaction [Verkhratsky and Butt (2013) In: Glial Physiology and Pathophysiology]. A well- known feature of astrocyte activation and reactive gliosis are the increased production of intermediate filament proteins (also known as nanofilament proteins) and remodeling of the intermediate filament system of astrocytes. Activation of astrocytes is associated with changes in the expression of many genes and characteristic morphological hallmarks, and has important functional consequences in situations such as stroke, trauma, epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and other neurodegenerative diseases. The impact of astrocyte activation and reactive gliosis on the pathogenesis of different neurological disorders is not yet fully understood but the available experimental evidence points to many beneficial aspects of astrocyte activation and reactive gliosis that range from isolation and sequestration of the affected region of the central nervous system (CNS) from the neighboring tissue that limits the lesion size to active neuroprotection and regulation of the CNS homeostasis in times of acute ischemic, osmotic, or other kinds of stress. The available experimental data from selected CNS pathologies suggest that if not resolved in time, reactive gliosis can exert inhibitory effects on several aspects of neuroplasticity and CNS regeneration and thus might become a target for future therapeutic interventions. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Autism spectrum disorders are characterised by severe deficits in socialisation, communication, and repetitive or unusual behaviours. Increases over time in the frequency of these disorders (to present rates of about 60 cases per 10,000 children) might be attributable to factors such as new administrative classifications, policy and practice changes, and increased awareness. Surveillance and screening strategies for early identification could enable early treatment and improved outcomes. Autism spectrum disorders are highly genetic and multifactorial, with many risk factors acting together. Genes that affect synaptic maturation are implicated, resulting in neurobiological theories focusing on connectivity and neural effects of gene expression. Several treatments might address core and comorbid symptoms. However, not all treatments have been adequately studied. Improved strategies for early identification with phenotypic characteristics and biological markers (eg, electrophysiological changes) might hopefully improve effectiveness of treatment. Further knowledge about early identification, neurobiology of autism, effective treatments, and the effect of this disorder on families is needed.