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      Selection against variants in the genome associated with educational attainment.

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          Abstract

          Epidemiological and genetic association studies show that genetics play an important role in the attainment of education. Here, we investigate the effect of this genetic component on the reproductive history of 109,120 Icelanders and the consequent impact on the gene pool over time. We show that an educational attainment polygenic score, POLYEDU, constructed from results of a recent study is associated with delayed reproduction (P < 10-100) and fewer children overall. The effect is stronger for women and remains highly significant after adjusting for educational attainment. Based on 129,808 Icelanders born between 1910 and 1990, we find that the average POLYEDU has been declining at a rate of ∼0.010 standard units per decade, which is substantial on an evolutionary timescale. Most importantly, because POLYEDU only captures a fraction of the overall underlying genetic component the latter could be declining at a rate that is two to three times faster.

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          GWAS of 126,559 individuals identifies genetic variants associated with educational attainment.

          Cornelius Rietveld, Sarah E. Medland, Jaime Derringer … (2013)
          A genome-wide association study (GWAS) of educational attainment was conducted in a discovery sample of 101,069 individuals and a replication sample of 25,490. Three independent single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are genome-wide significant (rs9320913, rs11584700, rs4851266), and all three replicate. Estimated effects sizes are small (coefficient of determination R(2) ≈ 0.02%), approximately 1 month of schooling per allele. A linear polygenic score from all measured SNPs accounts for ≈2% of the variance in both educational attainment and cognitive function. Genes in the region of the loci have previously been associated with health, cognitive, and central nervous system phenotypes, and bioinformatics analyses suggest the involvement of the anterior caudate nucleus. These findings provide promising candidate SNPs for follow-up work, and our effect size estimates can anchor power analyses in social-science genetics.
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            Loss-of-function mutations in SLC30A8 protect against type 2 diabetes.

            Jason Flannick, Gudmar Thorleifsson, Nicola Beer … (2014)
            Loss-of-function mutations protective against human disease provide in vivo validation of therapeutic targets, but none have yet been described for type 2 diabetes (T2D). Through sequencing or genotyping of ~150,000 individuals across 5 ancestry groups, we identified 12 rare protein-truncating variants in SLC30A8, which encodes an islet zinc transporter (ZnT8) and harbors a common variant (p.Trp325Arg) associated with T2D risk and glucose and proinsulin levels. Collectively, carriers of protein-truncating variants had 65% reduced T2D risk (P = 1.7 × 10(-6)), and non-diabetic Icelandic carriers of a frameshift variant (p.Lys34Serfs*50) demonstrated reduced glucose levels (-0.17 s.d., P = 4.6 × 10(-4)). The two most common protein-truncating variants (p.Arg138* and p.Lys34Serfs*50) individually associate with T2D protection and encode unstable ZnT8 proteins. Previous functional study of SLC30A8 suggested that reduced zinc transport increases T2D risk, and phenotypic heterogeneity was observed in mouse Slc30a8 knockouts. In contrast, loss-of-function mutations in humans provide strong evidence that SLC30A8 haploinsufficiency protects against T2D, suggesting ZnT8 inhibition as a therapeutic strategy in T2D prevention.
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              Genome-wide association study of cognitive functions and educational attainment in UK Biobank (N=112 151)

              Andrew G. Davies, R Marioni, D Liewald … (2016)
              People's differences in cognitive functions are partly heritable and are associated with important life outcomes. Previous genome-wide association (GWA) studies of cognitive functions have found evidence for polygenic effects yet, to date, there are few replicated genetic associations. Here we use data from the UK Biobank sample to investigate the genetic contributions to variation in tests of three cognitive functions and in educational attainment. GWA analyses were performed for verbal–numerical reasoning (N=36 035), memory (N=112 067), reaction time (N=111 483) and for the attainment of a college or a university degree (N=111 114). We report genome-wide significant single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)-based associations in 20 genomic regions, and significant gene-based findings in 46 regions. These include findings in the ATXN2, CYP2DG, APBA1 and CADM2 genes. We report replication of these hits in published GWA studies of cognitive function, educational attainment and childhood intelligence. There is also replication, in UK Biobank, of SNP hits reported previously in GWA studies of educational attainment and cognitive function. GCTA-GREML analyses, using common SNPs (minor allele frequency>0.01), indicated significant SNP-based heritabilities of 31% (s.e.m.=1.8%) for verbal–numerical reasoning, 5% (s.e.m.=0.6%) for memory, 11% (s.e.m.=0.6%) for reaction time and 21% (s.e.m.=0.6%) for educational attainment. Polygenic score analyses indicate that up to 5% of the variance in cognitive test scores can be predicted in an independent cohort. The genomic regions identified include several novel loci, some of which have been associated with intracranial volume, neurodegeneration, Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
                Title: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
                Publisher: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
                ISSN (Electronic): 1091-6490
                ISSN (Print): 0027-8424
                Publication date (Electronic): January 31 2017
                Volume: 114
                Issue: 5
                Affiliations
                [1 ] deCODE genetics/Amgen Inc., Reykjavik 101, Iceland; kong@decode.is kari.stefansson@decode.is.
                [2 ] School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavik 101, Iceland.
                [3 ] deCODE genetics/Amgen Inc., Reykjavik 101, Iceland.
                [4 ] Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom.
                [5 ] Department of Applied Economics, Erasmus School of Applied Economics, Erasmus University Rotterdam, 3062 PA Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
                [6 ] Institute for Behavior and Biology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, 3062 PA Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
                [7 ] Department of Anthropology, University of Iceland, Reykjavik 101, Iceland.
                [8 ] Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland, Reykjavik 101, Iceland.
                Article
                Publisher Item ID: 1612113114
                DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1612113114
                PMC ID: 5293043
                PubMed ID: 28096410
                SO-VID: 040743b3-87af-4334-ad88-a57b578576ae
                History

                Keywords: sequence variants,fertility,educational attainment,genes,selection
                Data availability:
                Keywords: sequence variants, fertility, educational attainment, genes, selection

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