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      High-fat diet reduces the formation of butyrate, but increases succinate, inflammation, liver fat and cholesterol in rats, while dietary fibre counteracts these effects.

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          Abstract

          Obesity is linked to type 2 diabetes and risk factors associated to the metabolic syndrome. Consumption of dietary fibres has been shown to have positive metabolic health effects, such as by increasing satiety, lowering blood glucose and cholesterol levels. These effects may be associated with short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), particularly propionic and butyric acids, formed by microbial degradation of dietary fibres in colon, and by their capacity to reduce low-grade inflammation.

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          Short-chain fatty acids and human colonic function: roles of resistant starch and nonstarch polysaccharides.

          David Topping, Peter M. Clifton (2001)
          Resistant starch (RS) is starch and products of its small intestinal digestion that enter the large bowel. It occurs for various reasons including chemical structure, cooking of food, chemical modification, and food mastication. Human colonic bacteria ferment RS and nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP; major components of dietary fiber) to short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), mainly acetate, propionate, and butyrate. SCFA stimulate colonic blood flow and fluid and electrolyte uptake. Butyrate is a preferred substrate for colonocytes and appears to promote a normal phenotype in these cells. Fermentation of some RS types favors butyrate production. Measurement of colonic fermentation in humans is difficult, and indirect measures (e.g., fecal samples) or animal models have been used. Of the latter, rodents appear to be of limited value, and pigs or dogs are preferable. RS is less effective than NSP in stool bulking, but epidemiological data suggest that it is more protective against colorectal cancer, possibly via butyrate. RS is a prebiotic, but knowledge of its other interactions with the microflora is limited. The contribution of RS to fermentation and colonic physiology seems to be greater than that of NSP. However, the lack of a generally accepted analytical procedure that accommodates the major influences on RS means this is yet to be established.
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            Inflammation: the link between insulin resistance, obesity and diabetes.

            Paresh Dandona, Ahmad Aljada, Arindam Bandyopadhyay (2004)
            Recent data have revealed that the plasma concentration of inflammatory mediators, such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), is increased in the insulin resistant states of obesity and type 2 diabetes, raising questions about the mechanisms underlying inflammation in these two conditions. It is also intriguing that an increase in inflammatory mediators or indices predicts the future development of obesity and diabetes. Two mechanisms might be involved in the pathogenesis of inflammation. Firstly, glucose and macronutrient intake causes oxidative stress and inflammatory changes. Chronic overnutrition (obesity) might thus be a proinflammatory state with oxidative stress. Secondly, the increased concentrations of TNF-alpha and IL-6, associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes, might interfere with insulin action by suppressing insulin signal transduction. This might interfere with the anti-inflammatory effect of insulin, which in turn might promote inflammation.
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              Anti-inflammatory properties of the short-chain fatty acids acetate and propionate: a study with relevance to inflammatory bowel disease.

              Sofia Tedelind, Fredrik Westberg, Martin Kjerrulf … (2007)
              To compare the anti-inflammatory properties of butyrate with two other SCFAs, namely acetate and propionate, which have less well-documented effects on inflammation. The effect of SCFAs on cytokine release from human neutrophils was studied with ELISA. SCFA-dependent modulation of NF-kappaB reporter activity was assessed in the human colon adenocarcinoma cell line, Colo320DM. Finally, the effect of SCFAs on gene expression and cytokine release, measured with RT-PCR and ELISA, respectively, was studied in mouse colon organ cultures established from colitic mice. Acetate, propionate and butyrate at 30 mmol/L decreased LPS-stimulated TNFalpha release from neutrophils, without affecting IL-8 protein release. All SCFAs dose dependently inhibited NF-kappaB reporter activity in Colo320DM cells. Propionate dose-dependently suppressed IL-6 mRNA and protein release from colon organ cultures and comparative studies revealed that propionate and butyrate at 30 mmol/L caused a strong inhibition of immune-related gene expression, whereas acetate was less effective. A similar inhibition was achieved with the proteasome inhibitor MG-132, but not the p38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580. All SCFAs decreased IL-6 protein release from organ cultures. In the present study propionate and butyrate were equipotent, whereas acetate was less effective, at suppressing NF-kappaB reporter activity, immune-related gene expression and cytokine release in vitro. Our findings suggest that propionate and acetate, in addition to butyrate, could be useful in the treatment of inflammatory disorders, including IBD.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): PLoS ONE
                Title: PloS one
                Publisher: Public Library of Science (PLoS)
                ISSN (Electronic): 1932-6203
                ISSN (Print): 1932-6203
                Publication date (Electronic): 2013
                Volume: 8
                Issue: 11
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Department of Applied Nutrition and Food Chemistry, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.
                Article
                Publisher Item ID: PONE-D-13-34165
                DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0080476
                PMC ID: 3827442
                PubMed ID: 24236183
                SO-VID: 2f6bd6ad-5e1b-4feb-9f06-ef01df9d9bf1
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