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      “We are on the frontlines too”: A qualitative content analysis of US social workers' experiences during the COVID‐19 pandemic

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          Abstract

          Social work has been a part of the essential workforce historically and throughout the COVID‐19 pandemic, yet lack recognition. This work explores the experiences and invisibility of social workers within the pandemic response. Data are drawn from a large cross‐sectional survey of US‐based social worker from June to August of 2020. A summative content analysis of responses to the question ‘What do you wish people knew about social work during the COVID‐19 pandemic’ was undertaken. Participants ( n = 515) were majority white (72.1%) and female (90.8%). Seven coding categories were subsequently collapsed into three domains: (1) meeting basic needs, (2) well‐being (emotional distress and dual role) and (3) professional invisibility (workplace equals, physical safety, professional invisibility and organisational invisibility). Meeting social needs requires broad‐based policies that strengthen the health and social safety net. Social workers have and will continue to play a critical role in the response, and recovery from COVID‐19. Organisational and governmental policies must expand to increase the visibility and responsiveness to the needs of social care providers.

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          Three approaches to qualitative content analysis.

          Content analysis is a widely used qualitative research technique. Rather than being a single method, current applications of content analysis show three distinct approaches: conventional, directed, or summative. All three approaches are used to interpret meaning from the content of text data and, hence, adhere to the naturalistic paradigm. The major differences among the approaches are coding schemes, origins of codes, and threats to trustworthiness. In conventional content analysis, coding categories are derived directly from the text data. With a directed approach, analysis starts with a theory or relevant research findings as guidance for initial codes. A summative content analysis involves counting and comparisons, usually of keywords or content, followed by the interpretation of the underlying context. The authors delineate analytic procedures specific to each approach and techniques addressing trustworthiness with hypothetical examples drawn from the area of end-of-life care.
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            Interrater reliability: the kappa statistic

            The kappa statistic is frequently used to test interrater reliability. The importance of rater reliability lies in the fact that it represents the extent to which the data collected in the study are correct representations of the variables measured. Measurement of the extent to which data collectors (raters) assign the same score to the same variable is called interrater reliability. While there have been a variety of methods to measure interrater reliability, traditionally it was measured as percent agreement, calculated as the number of agreement scores divided by the total number of scores. In 1960, Jacob Cohen critiqued use of percent agreement due to its inability to account for chance agreement. He introduced the Cohen’s kappa, developed to account for the possibility that raters actually guess on at least some variables due to uncertainty. Like most correlation statistics, the kappa can range from −1 to +1. While the kappa is one of the most commonly used statistics to test interrater reliability, it has limitations. Judgments about what level of kappa should be acceptable for health research are questioned. Cohen’s suggested interpretation may be too lenient for health related studies because it implies that a score as low as 0.41 might be acceptable. Kappa and percent agreement are compared, and levels for both kappa and percent agreement that should be demanded in healthcare studies are suggested.
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              Whatever happened to qualitative description?

              The general view of descriptive research as a lower level form of inquiry has influenced some researchers conducting qualitative research to claim methods they are really not using and not to claim the method they are using: namely, qualitative description. Qualitative descriptive studies have as their goal a comprehensive summary of events in the everyday terms of those events. Researchers conducting qualitative descriptive studies stay close to their data and to the surface of words and events. Qualitative descriptive designs typically are an eclectic but reasonable combination of sampling, and data collection, analysis, and re-presentation techniques. Qualitative descriptive study is the method of choice when straight descriptions of phenomena are desired. Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons,
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                jcederba@usc.edu
                Journal
                Health Soc Care Community
                Health Soc Care Community
                10.1111/(ISSN)1365-2524
                HSC
                Health & Social Care in the Community
                John Wiley and Sons Inc. (Hoboken )
                0966-0410
                1365-2524
                06 August 2022
                06 August 2022
                : 10.1111/hsc.13963
                Affiliations
                [ 1 ] Suzanne Dworak‐Peck School of Social Work University of Southern California Los Angeles California USA
                [ 2 ] Graduate School of Social Service Fordham University New York City New York USA
                [ 3 ] School of Social Work University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Chapel Hill North Carolina USA
                [ 4 ] Leonard Davis School of Gerontology University of Southern California Los Angeles California USA
                [ 5 ] Touro College Graduate School of Social Work New York City New York USA
                [ 6 ] School of Social Work Boston University Boston Massachusetts USA
                Author notes
                [*] [* ] Correspondence

                Julie A. Cederbaum, Suzanne Dworak‐Peck School of Social Work, University of Southern California, 669 W. 34th Street, MRF 214, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA.

                Email: jcederba@ 123456usc.edu

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4289-1820
                Article
                HSC13963 HSCC-OA-21-1368.R3
                10.1111/hsc.13963
                9539110
                35932168
                039fc0c4-6550-4258-80bd-5ed403b576db
                © 2022 The Authors. Health and Social Care in the Community published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

                This is an open access article under the terms of the http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 25 May 2022
                : 28 November 2021
                : 04 July 2022
                Page count
                Figures: 0, Tables: 2, Pages: 11, Words: 8359
                Categories
                Original Article
                Original Articles
                Custom metadata
                2.0
                corrected-proof
                Converter:WILEY_ML3GV2_TO_JATSPMC version:6.2.0 mode:remove_FC converted:07.10.2022

                Health & Social care
                covid,essential workers,frontline workers,policy,social work
                Health & Social care
                covid, essential workers, frontline workers, policy, social work

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