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      Risk for COVID-19 infection and death among Latinos in the United States: Examining heterogeneity in transmission dynamics

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          Abstract:

          Objectives

          Ascertain COVID-19 transmission dynamics among Latino communities nationally.

          Methods

          We compared predictors of COVID-19 cases and deaths between disproportionally Latino counties ( >17.8% Latino population) and all other counties through May 11, 2020. Adjusted Rate Ratios were estimated using COVID-19 cases and deaths via zero-inflated binomial regression models.

          Results

          COVID-19 diagnoses rates were greater in Latino counties nationally (90.9 vs. 82.0 per 100,000). In multivariable analysis, COVID-19 cases were greater in Northeastern and Midwestern Latino counties (aRR 1.42, 95% CI 1.11–1.84 and aRR 1.70, 95% CI 1.57–1.85, respectively). COVID-19 deaths were greater in Midwestern Latino counties (aRR, 1.17, 95% CI 1.04-1.34). COVID-19 diagnoses were associated with counties with greater monolingual Spanish speakers, employment rates, heart disease deaths, less social distancing, and days since the first reported case. COVID-19 deaths were associated with household occupancy density, air pollution, employment, days since the first reported case, and age (fewer <35yo).

          Conclusions

          COVID-19 risks and deaths among Latino populations differ by region. Structural factors place Latino populations and particularly monolingual Spanish speakers at elevated risk for COVID-19 acquisition.

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          Most cited references6

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          COVID-19 Among Workers in Meat and Poultry Processing Facilities ― 19 States, April 2020

          Congregate work and residential locations are at increased risk for infectious disease transmission including respiratory illness outbreaks. SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is primarily spread person to person through respiratory droplets. Nationwide, the meat and poultry processing industry, an essential component of the U.S. food infrastructure, employs approximately 500,000 persons, many of whom work in proximity to other workers (1). Because of reports of initial cases of COVID-19, in some meat processing facilities, states were asked to provide aggregated data concerning the number of meat and poultry processing facilities affected by COVID-19 and the number of workers with COVID-19 in these facilities, including COVID-19-related deaths. Qualitative data gathered by CDC during on-site and remote assessments were analyzed and summarized. During April 9-27, aggregate data on COVID-19 cases among 115 meat or poultry processing facilities in 19 states were reported to CDC. Among these facilities, COVID-19 was diagnosed in 4,913 (approximately 3%) workers, and 20 COVID-19-related deaths were reported. Facility barriers to effective prevention and control of COVID-19 included difficulty distancing workers at least 6 feet (2 meters) from one another (2) and in implementing COVID-19-specific disinfection guidelines.* Among workers, socioeconomic challenges might contribute to working while feeling ill, particularly if there are management practices such as bonuses that incentivize attendance. Methods to decrease transmission within the facility include worker symptom screening programs, policies to discourage working while experiencing symptoms compatible with COVID-19, and social distancing by workers. Source control measures (e.g., the use of cloth face covers) as well as increased disinfection of high-touch surfaces are also important means of preventing SARS-CoV-2 exposure. Mitigation efforts to reduce transmission in the community should also be considered. Many of these measures might also reduce asymptomatic and presymptomatic transmission (3). Implementation of these public health strategies will help protect workers from COVID-19 in this industry and assist in preserving the critical meat and poultry production infrastructure (4).
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            Update: COVID-19 Among Workers in Meat and Poultry Processing Facilities ― United States, April–May 2020

            On July 7, 2020, this report was posted online as an MMWR Early Release. Meat and poultry processing facilities face distinctive challenges in the control of infectious diseases, including coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) ( 1 ). COVID-19 outbreaks among meat and poultry processing facility workers can rapidly affect large numbers of persons. Assessment of COVID-19 cases among workers in 115 meat and poultry processing facilities through April 27, 2020, documented 4,913 cases and 20 deaths reported by 19 states ( 1 ). This report provides updated aggregate data from states regarding the number of meat and poultry processing facilities affected by COVID-19, the number and demographic characteristics of affected workers, and the number of COVID-19–associated deaths among workers, as well as descriptions of interventions and prevention efforts at these facilities. Aggregate data on confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths among workers identified and reported through May 31, 2020, were obtained from 239 affected facilities (those with a laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 case in one or more workers) in 23 states.* COVID-19 was confirmed in 16,233 workers, including 86 COVID-19–related deaths. Among 14 states reporting the total number of workers in affected meat and poultry processing facilities (112,616), COVID-19 was diagnosed in 9.1% of workers. Among 9,919 (61%) cases in 21 states with reported race/ethnicity, 87% occurred among racial and ethnic minority workers. Commonly reported interventions and prevention efforts at facilities included implementing worker temperature or symptom screening and COVID-19 education, mandating face coverings, adding hand hygiene stations, and adding physical barriers between workers. Targeted workplace interventions and prevention efforts that are appropriately tailored to the groups most affected by COVID-19 are critical to reducing both COVID-19–associated occupational risk and health disparities among vulnerable populations. Implementation of these interventions and prevention efforts † across meat and poultry processing facilities nationally could help protect workers in this critical infrastructure industry. Distinctive factors that increase meat and poultry processing workers’ risk for exposure to SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, include prolonged close workplace contact with coworkers (within 6 feet for ≥15 minutes) for long time periods (8–12 hour shifts), shared work spaces, shared transportation to and from the workplace, congregate housing, and frequent community contact with fellow workers. Many of these factors might also contribute to ongoing community transmission ( 1 ). To better understand the effect of COVID-19 on workers in these facilities nationwide, on June 6, 2020, CDC requested that state health departments report aggregate surveillance data through May 31, 2020, for workers in all meat and poultry processing facilities affected by COVID-19, including 1) the number and type of such facilities that had reported at least one confirmed COVID-19 case among workers, 2) the total number of workers in affected facilities, 3) the number of workers with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19, and 4) the number of COVID-19–related worker deaths. States reported COVID-19 cases determined by the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists confirmed case definition. § States were asked to report demographic characteristics and symptom status of workers with COVID-19. Testing strategies and methods for collecting symptom data varied by workplace. Proportional distributions for demographic characteristics and symptom status were calculated for cases among workers in 21 states after excluding missing and unknown values; data were missing for sex in 25% of reports, age in 24%, race/ethnicity in 39%, and symptom status in 37%. States also provided information (from direct observation or from management at affected facilities) regarding specified interventions and prevention efforts that were implemented. A random-effects logistic regression model was used to obtain an estimate of the pooled proportion of asymptomatic (SARS-CoV-2 detected but symptoms never develop) or presymptomatic (SARS-CoV-2 detected before symptom onset) infections at the time of testing among workers who had positive SARS-CoV-2 test results. Five states provided prevalence data from facility-wide testing of 5,572 workers in seven facilities. Modeling was conducted and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated, with facilities treated as the random effect, using SAS software (version 9.4; SAS Institute). Twenty-eight (56%) of 50 states responded, including 23 (82%) that reported at least one confirmed COVID-19 case among meat and poultry processing workers. Overall, 239 facilities reported 16,233 COVID-19 cases and 86 COVID-19–related deaths among workers (Table 1). The median number of affected facilities per state was seven (interquartile range = 3–14). Among 14 states reporting the total number of workers in affected facilities, 9.1% of 112,616 workers received diagnoses of COVID-19. The percentage of workers with COVID-19 ranged from 3.1% to 24.5% per facility. TABLE 1 Laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases among workers in meat and poultry facilities — 23 states, April–May 2020* State Type of meat/poultry in affected facilities No. (%) Facilities affected Workers in affected facilities† Confirmed COVID-19 cases among workers COVID-19–related deaths§ Arizona Beef 1 1,750 162 (9.3) 0 (0) Colorado Beef, bison, lamb, poultry 7 7,711 422 (5.5) 9 (2.1) Georgia Poultry 14 16,500 509 (3.1) 1 (0.2) Idaho Beef 2 797 72 (9.0) 0 (0) Illinois Beef, pork, poultry 26 N/A 1,029 (―) 10 (1.0) Kansas Beef, pork, poultry 10 N/A 2,670 (―) 8 (0.3) Kentucky Pork, poultry 7 7,633 559 (7.3) 4 (0.7) Maine Poultry 1 411 50 (12.2) 1 (2.0) Maryland Poultry 2 2,036 208 (10.2) 5 (2.4) Massachusetts Poultry, other 33 N/A 263 (―) 0 (0) Missouri Beef, pork, poultry 9 8,469 745 (8.8) 2 (0.3) Nebraska Beef, pork, poultry 23 26,134 3,438 (13.2) 14 (0.4) New Mexico Beef, pork, poultry 2 550 24 (4.4) 0 (0) Pennsylvania Beef, pork, poultry, other 30 15,548 1,169 (7.5) 8 (0.7) Rhode Island Beef, pork, poultry, other 6 N/A 78 (―) 0 (0) South Carolina Beef, pork, poultry, other 16 N/A 97 (―) 0 (0) South Dakota Beef, pork, poultry 4 6,500 1,593 (24.5) 3 (0.2) Tennessee Pork, poultry, other 7 N/A 640 (―) 2 (0.3) Utah Beef, pork, poultry 4 N/A 67 (―) 1 (1.5) Virginia Pork, poultry, other 14 N/A 1,109 (―) 10 (0.9) Washington Beef, poultry 7 4,452 468 (10.5) 4 (0.9) Wisconsin Beef, pork, veal 14 14,125 860 (6.1) 4 (0.5) Wyoming Beef 0 N/A 1 (―) 0 (0) Total¶ Beef, bison, lamb, pork, poultry, veal, other 239 112,616 16,233 86 Combined total** ― 264 ― 17,358 91 Abbreviations: COVID-19 = coronavirus disease 2019; N/A = not available. * Data reported through May 31, 2020. Five states that responded to the data request did not report any laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases among workers in the animal slaughtering and processing industry; 22 states with animal slaughtering and processing facilities did not respond to the data request. The 13 states that contributed to both an earlier assessment and this update provided any updates to previously reported data, in addition to reporting new cases and facilities, through May 31, 2020. † Among 14 of 23 states reporting the number of workers in affected workplaces, 9.1% of workers received diagnoses of COVID-19. § Percentage of deaths among cases. ¶ Data on workers with COVID-19 from 23 states that submitted data to this report. ** Combining data on workers with COVID-19 (1,125), COVID-19–related deaths (five), and COVID-19–affected facilities (25) through April 27 from six states that contributed to an earlier assessment of COVID-19 among meat and poultry processing workers that did not submit updated data to this report (https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6918e3.htm?s_cid=mm6918e3_w). Twenty-one states provided information on demographic characteristics and symptom status of workers with COVID-19. Among the 12,100 (75%) and 12,365 (76%) patients with information on sex and age, 7,288 (60%) cases occurred among males, and 5,741 (46%) were aged 40–59 years, respectively (Figure). Among the 9,919 (61%) cases with race/ethnicity reported, 5,584 (56%) were in Hispanics, 1,842 (19%) in non-Hispanic blacks (blacks), 1,332 (13%) in non-Hispanic whites (whites), and 1,161 (12%) in Asians. Symptom status was reported for 10,284 (63%) cases; among these, 9,072 (88%) workers were symptomatic, and 1,212 (12%) were asymptomatic or presymptomatic. FIGURE Characteristics * , † of reported laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases among workers in meat and poultry processing facilities — 21 states, April–May 2020 § Abbreviation: COVID-19 = coronavirus disease 2019. * The analytic dataset excludes cases reported by states that were missing information on sex (4,133), age (3,868), race/ethnicity (6,314), and symptom status (5,949). White, black, and Asian workers were non-Hispanic; Hispanic workers could be of any race. † Testing strategies and methods for collecting symptom data varied by workplace. Symptom status was available for a single timepoint, at the time of testing or at the time of interview. § Data reported through May 31, 2020. The figure is a bar chart showing characteristics of reported laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases among workers in meat and poultry processing facilities, by sex, age group, race/ethnicity, and symptom status, in 21 states during April–May 2020. Among 239 facilities reporting cases, information on interventions and prevention efforts was available for 111 (46%) facilities from 14 states. Overall, 89 (80%) facilities reported screening workers on entry, 86 (77%) required all workers to wear face coverings, 72 (65%) increased the availability of hand hygiene stations, 70 (63%) educated workers on community spread, and 69 (62%) installed physical barriers between workers (Table 2). Forty-one (37%) of 111 facilities offered testing for SARS-CoV-2 to workers; 24 (22%) reported closing temporarily as an intervention measure. TABLE 2 Interventions and prevention efforts implemented by facilities in response to COVID-19 among workers in 111 meat and poultry processing facilities* —14 states, April–May 2020 † Intervention/Prevention effort COVID-19–affected facilities, no. (%§) Implemented intervention Did not implement intervention Intervention status unknown Worker screening on entry 89 (80) 5 (5) 17 (15) Required universal face covering 86 (77) 5 (5) 20 (18) Added hand hygiene stations 72 (65) 8 (7) 31 (28) Educated employees on community spread 70 (63) 13 (12) 28 (25) Installed physical barriers between workers 69 (62) 17 (15) 25 (23) Staggered shifts 57 (51) 17 (15) 37 (33) Offered SARS-CoV-2 testing to employees¶ 41 (37) 35 (32) 35 (32) Removed financial incentives (e.g., attendance bonuses) 33 (30) 20 (18) 58 (52) Closed facility temporarily 24 (22) 69 (62) 18 (16) Reduced rate of animal processing 23 (21) 14 (12) 74 (67) Decreased crowding of transportation to worksite 17 (15) 10 (9) 84 (76) Abbreviation: COVID-19 = coronavirus disease 2019. * Affected facilities defined as those having one or more laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases among workers. † Based on data collected through May 31, 2020. § Because of rounding, row percentages might not equal 100%. ¶ Testing strategies varied by facility. Among seven facilities that implemented facility-wide testing, the crude prevalence of asymptomatic or presymptomatic infections among 5,572 workers who had positive SARS-CoV-2 test results was 14.4%. The pooled prevalence estimated from the model for the proportion of asymptomatic or presymptomatic infections among workers in meat and poultry processing facilities was 11.2% (95% CI = 0.9%–23.1%). Discussion The animal slaughtering and processing industry employs an estimated 525,000 workers in approximately 3,500 facilities nationwide ( 2 , 3 ). Combining data on workers with COVID-19 and COVID-19–related deaths identified and reported through May 31 from 23 states (16,233 cases; 86 deaths) with data from an earlier assessment through April 27 (1,125 cases; five deaths) ( 1 ) that included data from six states that did not contribute updated data to this report, ¶ at least 17,358 cases and 91 COVID-19–related deaths have occurred among U.S. meat and poultry processing workers. The effects of COVID-19 on racial and ethnic minority groups are not yet fully understood; however, current data indicate a disproportionate burden of illness and death among these populations ( 4 , 5 ). Among animal slaughtering and processing workers from the 21 states included in this report whose race/ethnicity were known, approximately 39% were white, 30% were Hispanic, 25% were black, and 6% were Asian.** However, among 9,919 workers with COVID-19 with race/ethnicity reported, approximately 56% were Hispanic, 19% were black, 13% were white, and 12% were Asian, suggesting that Hispanic and Asian workers might be disproportionately affected by COVID-19 in this workplace setting. Ongoing efforts to reduce incidence and better understand the effects of COVID-19 on the health of racial and ethnic minorities are important to ensure that workplace-specific prevention strategies and intervention messages are tailored to those groups most affected by COVID-19. The proportion of asymptomatic or presymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections identified in investigations of COVID-19 outbreaks in other high-density settings has ranged from 19% to 88% ( 6 , 7 ). Among cases in workers with known symptom status in this report, 12% of patients were asymptomatic or presymptomatic; however, not all facilities performed facility-wide testing, during which these infections are more likely to be identified. Consequently, many asymptomatic and presymptomatic infections in the overall workforce might have gone unrecognized, and the approximations for disease prevalence in this report might underestimate SARS-CoV-2 infections. Recently derived estimates of the total proportion of asymptomatic and presymptomatic infections from data on COVID-19 investigations among cruise ship passengers and evacuees from Wuhan, China, ranged from 17.9% to 30.8%, respectively ( 8 , 9 ). The estimated proportion of asymptomatic and presymptomatic infections among meat and poultry processing workers (11.2%) is lower than are previously reported estimates and should be reevaluated as more comprehensive facility-wide testing data are reported. In coordination with state and local health agencies, many meat and poultry processing facilities have implemented interventions to reduce transmission or prevent ongoing exposure within the workplace, including offering testing to workers. †† Expanding interventions across these facilities nationwide might help protect workers in this industry. Recognizing the interaction of workplace and community, many facilities have also educated workers about strategies for reducing transmission of COVID-19 outside the workplace. §§ The findings in this report are subject to at least seven limitations. First, only 28 of 50 states responded; 23 states with COVID-19 cases among meat and poultry processing facility workers submitted data for this report. In addition, only facilities with at least one laboratory-confirmed case of COVID-19 among workers were included. Thus, these results might not be representative of all U.S. meat and poultry processing facilities and workers. Second, delays in identifying workplace outbreaks and linking cases or deaths to outbreaks might have resulted in an underestimation of the number of affected facilities and cases among workers. Third, data were not reported on variations in testing availability and practices, which might influence the number of cases reported. Fourth, industry data were used for race/ethnicity comparisons; demographic characteristics of total worker populations in affected facilities were not available, limiting the ability to quantify the degree to which some racial and ethnic minority groups might be disproportionately affected by COVID-19 in this industry. Reported frequencies of demographic and symptom data likely underestimate the actual prevalence because of missing data, which limits the conclusions that can be drawn from descriptive analyses. Fifth, information on interventions and prevention efforts was available for a subset of affected facilities and therefore might not be generalizable to all facilities. Information was subject to self-report by facility management, and all available intervention efforts might not have been captured. Further evaluation of the extent of control measures and timing of implementations is needed to assess effectiveness of control measures. Sixth, symptom data collected at facility-wide testing was self-reported and might have been influenced by the presence of employers. Finally, workers in this industry are members of their local communities, and their source of exposure and infection could not be determined; for those living in communities experiencing widespread transmission, exposure might have occurred within the surrounding community as well as at the worksite. High population-density workplace settings such as meat and poultry processing facilities present ongoing challenges to preventing and reducing the risk for SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Collaborative implementation of interventions and prevention efforts, which might include comprehensive testing strategies, could help reduce COVID-19–associated occupational risk. Targeted, workplace-specific prevention strategies are critical to reducing COVID-19–associated health disparities among vulnerable populations Lessons learned from investigating outbreaks of COVID-19 in meat and poultry processing facilities could inform investigations in other food production and agriculture workplaces to help prevent and reduce COVID-19 transmission among all workers in these essential industries. Summary What is already known about this topic? COVID-19 outbreaks among meat and poultry processing facility workers can rapidly affect large numbers of persons. What is added by this report? Among 23 states reporting COVID-19 outbreaks in meat and poultry processing facilities, 16,233 cases in 239 facilities occurred, including 86 (0.5%) COVID-19–related deaths. Among cases with race/ethnicity reported, 87% occurred among racial or ethnic minorities. Commonly implemented interventions included worker screening, source control measures (universal face coverings), engineering controls (physical barriers), and infection prevention measures (additional hand hygiene stations). What are the implications for public health practice? Targeted workplace interventions and prevention efforts that are appropriately tailored to the groups most affected by COVID-19 are critical to reducing both COVID-19–associated occupational risk and health disparities among vulnerable populations.
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              Health care use among undocumented Latino immigrants

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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Ann Epidemiol
                Ann Epidemiol
                Annals of Epidemiology
                The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc.
                1047-2797
                1873-2585
                23 July 2020
                23 July 2020
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Prevention and Community Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington, University, Washington, DC
                [2 ]Center for Latino Adolescent and Family Health, New York University, New York, NY
                [3 ]John D. Bower School of Population Health, University of Mississippi, Medical Center, Jackson, MS
                [4 ]Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
                [5 ]Public Policy Office, AmfAR, Foundation for AIDS Research, Washington, DC
                [6 ]O’Neill Institute for National and Global Health Law, Georgetown University, Washington, DC
                [7 ]Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
                [8 ]School of Nursing and Health Studies, University of Miami, Miami, FL
                [9 ]Public Health Program, Ponce Health Sciences University, Ponce, PR
                Author notes
                []Correspondence:
                Article
                S1047-2797(20)30267-2
                10.1016/j.annepidem.2020.07.007
                7375962
                32711053
                194bb8cc-b079-4f3a-ac8b-76a6e7c803f0
                © 2020 The Author(s)

                Since January 2020 Elsevier has created a COVID-19 resource centre with free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID-19. The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company's public news and information website. Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVID-19-related research that is available on the COVID-19 resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for free by Elsevier for as long as the COVID-19 resource centre remains active.

                History
                : 22 June 2020
                : 16 July 2020
                : 16 July 2020
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                Public health
                Public health

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