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      Genetic Strain Diversity of Multi-Host RNA Viruses that Infect a Wide Range of Pollinators and Associates is Shaped by Geographic Origins

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          Abstract

          Emerging viruses have caused concerns about pollinator population declines, as multi-host RNA viruses may pose a health threat to pollinators and associated arthropods. In order to understand the ecology and impact these viruses have, we studied their host range and determined to what extent host and spatial variation affect strain diversity. Firstly, we used RT-PCR to screen pollinators and associates, including honey bees ( Apis mellifera) and invasive Argentine ants ( Linepithema humile), for virus presence and replication. We tested for the black queen cell virus (BQCV), deformed wing virus (DWV), and Kashmir bee virus (KBV) that were initially detected in bees, and the two recently discovered Linepithema humile bunya-like virus 1 (LhuBLV1) and Moku virus (MKV). DWV, KBV, and MKV were detected and replicated in a wide range of hosts and commonly co-infected hymenopterans. Secondly, we placed KBV and DWV in a global phylogeny with sequences from various countries and hosts to determine the association of geographic origin and host with shared ancestry. Both phylogenies showed strong geographic rather than host-specific clustering, suggesting frequent inter-species virus transmission. Transmission routes between hosts are largely unknown. Nonetheless, avoiding the introduction of non-native species and diseased pollinators appears important to limit spill overs and disease emergence.

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          Species interactions in a parasite community drive infection risk in a wildlife population.

          Most hosts, including humans, are simultaneously or sequentially infected with several parasites. A key question is whether patterns of coinfection arise because infection by one parasite species affects susceptibility to others or because of inherent differences between hosts. We used time-series data from individual hosts in natural populations to analyze patterns of infection risk for a microparasite community, detecting large positive and negative effects of other infections. Patterns remain once variations in host susceptibility and exposure are accounted for. Indeed, effects are typically of greater magnitude, and explain more variation in infection risk, than the effects associated with host and environmental factors more commonly considered in disease studies. We highlight the danger of mistaken inference when considering parasite species in isolation rather than parasite communities.
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            Correlating viral phenotypes with phylogeny: accounting for phylogenetic uncertainty.

            Many recent studies have sought to quantify the degree to which viral phenotypic characters (such as epidemiological risk group, geographic location, cell tropism, drug resistance state, etc.) are correlated with shared ancestry, as represented by a viral phylogenetic tree. Here, we present a new Bayesian Markov-Chain Monte Carlo approach to the investigation of such phylogeny-trait correlations. This method accounts for uncertainty arising from phylogenetic error and provides a statistical significance test of the null hypothesis that traits are associated randomly with phylogeny tips. We perform extensive simulations to explore and compare the behaviour of three statistics of phylogeny-trait correlation. Finally, we re-analyse two existing published data sets as case studies. Our framework aims to provide an improvement over existing methods for this problem.
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              Varroa destructor feeds primarily on honey bee fat body tissue and not hemolymph

              Significance Varroa destructor causes considerable damage to honey bees and subsequently the field of apiculture through just one process: feeding. For five decades, we have believed that these mites consume hemolymph like a tick consumes blood, and that Varroa cause harm primarily by vectoring viruses. Our work shows that they cause damage more directly. Varroa externally digest and consume fat body tissue rather than blood. These findings explain the failure of some previous attempts at developing effectively targeted treatment strategies for Varroa control. Furthermore, it provides some explanation for the diverse array of debilitating pathologies associated with Varroa that were unexplained by hemolymph removal alone. Our work provides a path forward for the development of novel treatment strategies for Varroa.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Viruses
                Viruses
                viruses
                Viruses
                MDPI
                1999-4915
                24 March 2020
                March 2020
                : 12
                : 3
                : 358
                Affiliations
                School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand; antoine.felden@ 123456vuw.ac.nz (A.F.); phil.lester@ 123456vuw.ac.nz (P.J.L.)
                Author notes
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6742-0945
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8499-0739
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1801-5687
                Article
                viruses-12-00358
                10.3390/v12030358
                7150836
                32213950
                3731b562-795f-4599-bb4a-c371bcff1dfd
                © 2020 by the authors.

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 15 February 2020
                : 21 March 2020
                Categories
                Article

                Microbiology & Virology
                honey bee virus,pollinator,bee associate,apis mellifera,linepithema humile,dwv,kbv,moku virus,invasive species

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