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      The Prevalence of Food Addiction as Assessed by the Yale Food Addiction Scale: A Systematic Review

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          Abstract

          Obesity is a global issue and it has been suggested that an addiction to certain foods could be a factor contributing to overeating and subsequent obesity. Only one tool, the Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS) has been developed to specifically assess food addiction. This review aimed to determine the prevalence of food addiction diagnosis and symptom scores, as assessed by the YFAS. Published studies to July 2014 were included if they reported the YFAS diagnosis or symptom score and were published in the English language. Twenty-five studies were identified including a total of 196,211 predominantly female, overweight/obese participants (60%). Using meta-analysis, the weighted mean prevalence of YFAS food addiction diagnosis was 19.9%. Food addiction (FA) diagnosis was found to be higher in adults aged >35 years, females, and overweight/obese participants. Additionally, YFAS diagnosis and symptom score was higher in clinical samples compared to non-clinical counterparts. YFAS outcomes were related to a range of other eating behavior measures and anthropometrics. Further research is required to explore YFAS outcomes across a broader spectrum of ages, other types of eating disorders and in conjunction with weight loss interventions to confirm the efficacy of the tool to assess for the presence of FA.

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          Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.

          Marie Ng, Tom Fleming, Margaret W. Robinson … (2015)
          In 2010, overweight and obesity were estimated to cause 3·4 million deaths, 3·9% of years of life lost, and 3·8% of disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) worldwide. The rise in obesity has led to widespread calls for regular monitoring of changes in overweight and obesity prevalence in all populations. Comparable, up-to-date information about levels and trends is essential to quantify population health effects and to prompt decision makers to prioritise action. We estimate the global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013. We systematically identified surveys, reports, and published studies (n=1769) that included data for height and weight, both through physical measurements and self-reports. We used mixed effects linear regression to correct for bias in self-reports. We obtained data for prevalence of obesity and overweight by age, sex, country, and year (n=19,244) with a spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression model to estimate prevalence with 95% uncertainty intervals (UIs). Worldwide, the proportion of adults with a body-mass index (BMI) of 25 kg/m(2) or greater increased between 1980 and 2013 from 28·8% (95% UI 28·4-29·3) to 36·9% (36·3-37·4) in men, and from 29·8% (29·3-30·2) to 38·0% (37·5-38·5) in women. Prevalence has increased substantially in children and adolescents in developed countries; 23·8% (22·9-24·7) of boys and 22·6% (21·7-23·6) of girls were overweight or obese in 2013. The prevalence of overweight and obesity has also increased in children and adolescents in developing countries, from 8·1% (7·7-8·6) to 12·9% (12·3-13·5) in 2013 for boys and from 8·4% (8·1-8·8) to 13·4% (13·0-13·9) in girls. In adults, estimated prevalence of obesity exceeded 50% in men in Tonga and in women in Kuwait, Kiribati, Federated States of Micronesia, Libya, Qatar, Tonga, and Samoa. Since 2006, the increase in adult obesity in developed countries has slowed down. Because of the established health risks and substantial increases in prevalence, obesity has become a major global health challenge. Not only is obesity increasing, but no national success stories have been reported in the past 33 years. Urgent global action and leadership is needed to help countries to more effectively intervene. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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            Preliminary validation of the Yale Food Addiction Scale.

            Ashley Gearhardt, William Corbin, Kelly D. Brownell (2009)
            Previous research has found similarities between addiction to psychoactive substances and excessive food consumption. Further exploration is needed to evaluate the concept of "food addiction," as there is currently a lack of psychometrically validated measurement tools in this area. The current study represents a preliminary exploration of the Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS), designed to identify those exhibiting signs of addiction towards certain types of foods (e.g., high fat and high sugar). Survey data were collected from 353 respondents from a stratified random sample of young adults. In addition to the YFAS, the survey assessed eating pathology, alcohol consumption and other health behaviors. The YFAS exhibited adequate internal reliability, and showed good convergent validity with measures of similar constructs and good discriminant validity relative to related but dissimilar constructs. Additionally, the YFAS predicted binge-eating behavior above and beyond existing measures of eating pathology, demonstrating incremental validity. The YFAS is a sound tool for identifying eating patterns that are similar to behaviors seen in classic areas of addiction. Further evaluation of the scale is needed, especially due to a low response rate of 24.5% and a non-clinical sample, but confirmation of the reliability and validity of the scale has the potential to facilitate empirical research on the concept of "food addiction".
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              The three-factor eating questionnaire to measure dietary restraint, disinhibition and hunger.

              A STUNKARD, S Messick (1984)
              This report describes the construction of a questionnaire to measure three dimensions of human eating behavior. The first step was a collation of items from two existing questionnaires that measure the related concepts of 'restrained eating' and 'latent obesity', to which were added items newly written to elucidate these concepts. This version was administered to several populations selected to include persons who exhibited the spectrum from extreme dietary restraint to extreme lack of restraint. The resulting responses were factor analyzed and the resulting factor structure was used to revise the questionnaire. This process was then repeated: administration of the revised questionnaire to groups representing extremes of dietary restraint, factor analysis of the results and questionnaire revision. Three stable factors emerged: (1) 'cognitive restraint of eating', (2) 'disinhibition' and (3) 'hunger'. The new 51-item questionnaire measuring these factors is presented.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Nutrients
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Nutrients
                Journal ID (publisher-id): nutrients
                Title: Nutrients
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2072-6643
                Publication date (Electronic): 21 October 2014
                Publication date Collection: October 2014
                Volume: 6
                Issue: 10
                Pages: 4552-4590
                Affiliations
                [1 ]School of Health Sciences, Priority Research Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia; E-Mails: kirrilly.pursey@ 123456newcastle.edu.au (K.M.P.); clare.collins@ 123456newcastle.edu.au (C.E.C.)
                [2 ]School of Health Sciences, Priority Research Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia; E-Mail: peter.stanwell@ 123456newcastle.edu.au
                [3 ]Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; E-Mail: agearhar@ 123456umich.edu
                Author notes
                [* ]Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: tracy.burrows@ 123456newcastle.edu.au ; Tel.: +61-249-215-514 (ext. 123); Fax: +61-249-217-053.
                Article
                Publisher ID: nutrients-06-04552
                DOI: 10.3390/nu6104552
                PMC ID: 4210934
                PubMed ID: 25338274
                SO-VID: 56ab2f6c-9e58-45f7-a9a8-1ba0223476e9
                Copyright © © 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
                License:

                This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 01 August 2014
                Date revision received : 11 August 2014
                Date accepted : 09 October 2014
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Nutrition & Dietetics
                Keywords: food addiction,yale food addiction scale,yfas,obesity,eating disorders,substance dependence,addiction
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Nutrition & Dietetics
                Keywords: food addiction, yale food addiction scale, yfas, obesity, eating disorders, substance dependence, addiction

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