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      Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 synonymous codon usage evolution throughout the COVID-19 pandemic

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          Abstract

          SARS-CoV-2, the seventh coronavirus known to infect humans, can cause severe life-threatening respiratory pathologies. To better understand SARS-CoV-2 evolution, genome-wide analyses have been made, including the general characterization of its codons usage profile. Here we present a bioinformatic analysis of the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 codon usage over time using complete genomes collected since December 2019. Our results show that SARS-CoV-2 codon usage pattern is antagonistic to, and it is getting farther away from that of the human host. Further, a selection of deoptimized codons over time, which was accompanied by a decrease in both the codon adaptation index and the effective number of codons, was observed. All together, these findings suggest that SARS-CoV-2 could be evolving, at least from the perspective of the synonymous codon usage, to become less pathogenic.

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          MAFFT Multiple Sequence Alignment Software Version 7: Improvements in Performance and Usability

          Kazutaka Katoh, Daron Standley (2013)
          We report a major update of the MAFFT multiple sequence alignment program. This version has several new features, including options for adding unaligned sequences into an existing alignment, adjustment of direction in nucleotide alignment, constrained alignment and parallel processing, which were implemented after the previous major update. This report shows actual examples to explain how these features work, alone and in combination. Some examples incorrectly aligned by MAFFT are also shown to clarify its limitations. We discuss how to avoid misalignments, and our ongoing efforts to overcome such limitations.
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            IQ-TREE: A Fast and Effective Stochastic Algorithm for Estimating Maximum-Likelihood Phylogenies

            Lam-Tung Nguyen, Heiko Schmidt, Arndt von Haeseler … (2014)
            Large phylogenomics data sets require fast tree inference methods, especially for maximum-likelihood (ML) phylogenies. Fast programs exist, but due to inherent heuristics to find optimal trees, it is not clear whether the best tree is found. Thus, there is need for additional approaches that employ different search strategies to find ML trees and that are at the same time as fast as currently available ML programs. We show that a combination of hill-climbing approaches and a stochastic perturbation method can be time-efficiently implemented. If we allow the same CPU time as RAxML and PhyML, then our software IQ-TREE found higher likelihoods between 62.2% and 87.1% of the studied alignments, thus efficiently exploring the tree-space. If we use the IQ-TREE stopping rule, RAxML and PhyML are faster in 75.7% and 47.1% of the DNA alignments and 42.2% and 100% of the protein alignments, respectively. However, the range of obtaining higher likelihoods with IQ-TREE improves to 73.3-97.1%.
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              A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China

              Fan Wu, Su Zhao, Bin Yu … (2020)
              Emerging infectious diseases, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Zika virus disease, present a major threat to public health 1–3 . Despite intense research efforts, how, when and where new diseases appear are still a source of considerable uncertainty. A severe respiratory disease was recently reported in Wuhan, Hubei province, China. As of 25 January 2020, at least 1,975 cases had been reported since the first patient was hospitalized on 12 December 2019. Epidemiological investigations have suggested that the outbreak was associated with a seafood market in Wuhan. Here we study a single patient who was a worker at the market and who was admitted to the Central Hospital of Wuhan on 26 December 2019 while experiencing a severe respiratory syndrome that included fever, dizziness and a cough. Metagenomic RNA sequencing 4 of a sample of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from the patient identified a new RNA virus strain from the family Coronaviridae, which is designated here ‘WH-Human 1’ coronavirus (and has also been referred to as ‘2019-nCoV’). Phylogenetic analysis of the complete viral genome (29,903 nucleotides) revealed that the virus was most closely related (89.1% nucleotide similarity) to a group of SARS-like coronaviruses (genus Betacoronavirus, subgenus Sarbecovirus) that had previously been found in bats in China 5 . This outbreak highlights the ongoing ability of viral spill-over from animals to cause severe disease in humans.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Virology
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Virology
                Title: Virology
                Publisher: Elsevier Inc.
                ISSN (Print): 0042-6822
                ISSN (Electronic): 1096-0341
                Publication date PMC-release: 2 February 2022
                Publication date (Print): March 2022
                Publication date (Electronic): 2 February 2022
                Volume: 568
                Pages: 56-71
                Affiliations
                [1]Instituto de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular (IBBM), CONICET, CCT-La Plata, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), Argentina
                Author notes
                [∗ ]Corresponding author.
                [1]

                These authors contributed equally to this work.

                Article
                Publisher Item ID: S0042-6822(22)00018-6
                DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2022.01.011
                PMC ID: 8808327
                PubMed ID: 35134624
                SO-VID: 5fac620e-6b2b-44aa-9500-505bfeb6e7f1
                Copyright © © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
                License:

                Since January 2020 Elsevier has created a COVID-19 resource centre with free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID-19. The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company's public news and information website. Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVID-19-related research that is available on the COVID-19 resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for free by Elsevier for as long as the COVID-19 resource centre remains active.

                History
                Date received : 27 December 2021
                Date revision received : 21 January 2022
                Date accepted : 21 January 2022
                Categories
                Subject: Article

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Microbiology & Virology
                Keywords: codon usage bias,sars-cov-2,covid-19,betacoronavirus
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Microbiology & Virology
                Keywords: codon usage bias, sars-cov-2, covid-19, betacoronavirus

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