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      Alcoholism: the dissection for endophenotypes Translated title: Alcoholismo: la disección mediante endofenotipos Translated title: Alcoolisme : le découpage des endophénotypes

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          Abstract

          Alcohol dependence (alcoholism) is a complex disorder attributed to the interaction of genetic and environmental factors that form a collage of “disease” predisposition, which is not identical for every alcohol-dependent individual. There is considerable evidence to demonstrate that genetic predisposition accounts for roughly half the risk in the development of alcohol dependence. Both family and population studies have identified a number of genomic regions with suggestive links to alcoholism, yet there have been relatively few definitive findings with regard to genetic determinants of alcoholism. This ambiguity can be attributed to a multitude of complications of studying complex mental disorders, such as clinical heterogeneity, polygenic determinants, reduced penetrance, and epistatic effects. Complex mental disorders are clinical manifestations described by combinations of various signs and symptoms. One approach to overcoming the ambiguity in studying the association between genetic risk factors and disease is to dissect the complex, heterogeneous disorder by using intermediate phenotypes - or endophenotypes - to generate more homogeneous diagnostic groupings than an all-encompassing definition, such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) - derived term “alcohol dependence” or the commonly used term “alcoholism, ” The advantage of using endophenotypes is that the number of influential factors that contribute to these characteristics should be fewer and more easily identified than the number of factors affecting the heterogeneous entity of alcohol dependence (alcoholism). A variety of alcohol-related characteristics have been investigated in epidemiological, clinical, and basic research as potential endophenotypes of alcohol dependence. These include phenotypes related to alcohol metabolism, physiological and endocrine measures, neural imaging, electrophysiology, personality, drinking behavior, and responses to alcohol and alcohol-derived cues. This review summarizes the current literature, focused on human data, of promising endophenotypes for dissecting alcoholism.

          Translated abstract

          La dependencia de alcohol (alcoholismo) es un trastorno complejo que se atribuye a la interacción de factores genéticos y ambientales que forman un collage para la predisposición a la “ enfermedad, ” lo que no es idéntico para cada individuo dependiente de alcohol. Existe una considerable evidencia que demuestra que la predisposición genética da cuenta aproximadamente de la mitad del riesgo para el desarrollo de la dependencia de alcohol. Tanto los estudios en familias como en población han identificado un número de regiones del genoma que sugieren asociaciones con el alcoholismo, pero han sido relativamente pocos los hallazgos definitivos en relación con determinantes genéticos del alcoholismo. Esta ambigüedad puede atribuirse a diversas complicaciones del estudio de los trastornos mentales complejos, tales como la heterogeneidad clínica, los determinantes poligénicos, la reducción de la penetración y los efectos epistáticos. Los trastornos mentales complejos son manifestaciones clínicas descritas por combinaciones de varios signos y síntomas. Una aproximación para superar la ambigüedad en el estudio de la asociación entre los factores de riesgo genético y la enfermedad es disecar el trastorno heterogéneo y complejo mediante el empleo de fenotipos intermediarios - o endofenotipos - para generar agrupaciones diagnósticas más homogéneas que la definición ampliamente abarcadora del término “ dependencia de alcohol ” derivada del Manual Diagnóstico y Estadístico de los Trastornos Mentales, en su cuarta edición (DSM IV) o del término “ alcoholismo ” utilizado comúnmente. La ventaja de utilizar endofenotipos es que el número de factores que pueden ser determinantes en la contribución a estas características debe ser menor y de más fácil identificación que el número de factores que afectan la heterogénea entidad de la dependencia de alcohol (alcoholismo). A través de estudios epidemiológicos, clínicos y básicos se ha investigado una variedad de características relacionadas con el alcohol como potenciales endofenotipos de la dependencia de alcohol. Estos incluyen fenotipos relacionados con el metabolismo del alcohol, mediciones fisiológicas y endocrinas, neuroimágenes, electrofisiología, personalidad, conducta para beber y respuestas para señales para el alcohol y derivadas del alcohol. Esta revisión, focalizada en resultados en seres humanos, resume la literatura actual de prometedores endofenotipos que permitan hacer una disección del alcoholismo.

          Translated abstract

          La dépendance alcoolique (alcoolisme) est un trouble complexe attribué à l'interaction de facteurs génétiques et environnementaux qui forment un ensemble de prédispositions à la « maladie » différentes pour chaque individu alcoolodépendant. Il existe des arguments solides pour démontrer que les prédispositions génétiques participent pour à peu près la moitié du risque dans le développement de la dépendance alcoolique. Des études de population et familiales ont identifié un certain nombre de régions du génome présentant des liens évocateurs avec l'alcoolisme ; il y a eu jusqu'à maintenant relativement peu de résultats définitifs en ce qui concerne les déterminants génétiques de l'alcoolisme. Cette ambiguïté peut être attribuée à une multitude de complications dans l'étude des troubles mentaux complexes, tels que l'hétérogénéité clinique, les déterminants polygéniques, la pénétrance réduite et les effets épistatiques. Les troubles mentaux complexes se manifestent cliniquement par des associations de signes et symptômes variés. Découper ces troubles complexes, hétérogènes en utilisant des phénotypes intermédiaires - ou endophénotypes - pour former des groupes de diagnostic plus homogènes qu'une définition globale, telle que celle de « dépendance alcoolique » ou celle courante d'« alcoolisme » du DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition) peut permettre de surmonter l'ambiguïté qui existe dans l'étude de l'association des facteurs de risque génétiques et la maladie. L'avantage des endophénotypes est que le nombre de facteurs influents qui les caractérisent devrait être moins important et plus facilement identifiable que le nombre des facteurs affectant l'entité hétérogène de la dépendance alcoolique (alcoolisme). Nous avons recherché de multiples caractéristiques liées à l'alcool aux niveaux standard, clinique et épidémiologique, comme endophénotypes potentiels de la dépendance alcoolique. Ceux-ci comprennent des phénotypes liés au métabolisme de l'alcool, à des mesures endocrines et physiologiques, à l'imagerie nerveuse, à l'électrophysiologie, à la personnalité, aux comportements vis-à-vis de la boisson et aux réponses aux signaux alcooliques et dérivés de l'alcool. Cet article résume la littérature actuelle, mise au point sur des données humaines, concernant des endophénotypes prometteurs dans l'analyse fine du phénomène de l'alcoolisme.

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          Most cited references110

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          Mapping complex disease loci in whole-genome association studies.

          Identification of the genetic polymorphisms that contribute to susceptibility for common diseases such as type 2 diabetes and schizophrenia will aid in the development of diagnostics and therapeutics. Previous studies have focused on the technique of genetic linkage, but new technologies and experimental resources make whole-genome association studies more feasible. Association studies of this type have good prospects for dissecting the genetics of common disease, but they currently face a number of challenges, including problems with multiple testing and study design, definition of intermediate phenotypes and interaction between polymorphisms.
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            Transcriptional regulation by cyclic AMP.

            A number of hormones and growth factors have been shown to stimulate target cells via second messenger pathways that in turn regulate the phosphorylation of specific nuclear factors. The second messenger cyclic AMP, for example, regulates a striking number of physiologic processes, including intermediary metabolism, cellular proliferation, and neuronal signaling, by altering basic patterns of gene expression. Our understanding of cyclic AMP signaling in the nucleus has expanded considerably over the past decade, owing in large part to the characterization of cyclic AMP-responsive promoter elements, transcription factors that bind them, and signal-dependent coactivators that mediate target gene induction. More importantly, these studies have revealed new insights into biological problems as diverse as biological clocks and long-term memory. The purpose of this review is to describe the components of the cyclic AMP response unit and to analyze how these components cooperate to induce target gene expression in response to hormonal stimulation.
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              Differential brain activity in alcoholics and social drinkers to alcohol cues: relationship to craving.

              Using fMRI, our group previously found that after a sip of alcohol and exposure to alcohol beverage pictures, alcoholics compared to social drinkers had increased differential brain activity in the prefrontal cortex and anterior thalamus. This study extends this earlier work with several improvements including imaging the entire brain (rather than the anterior half previously) and recording craving, while the subjects viewed images within the scanner. In a Philips 1.5 T MRI scanner, 10 nontreatment-seeking alcoholics and 10 age-matched healthy social drinkers were given a sip of alcohol before viewing a 12 min randomized presentation of pictures of alcoholic beverages, nonalcoholic beverages, and two different visual control tasks. During picture presentation, changes in regional brain activity were measured in 15 transverse T2(*)-weighted blood oxygen level dependent slices. Subjects rated their urge to drink after each picture sequence. After a sip of alcohol, while viewing alcohol cues compared to viewing other beverage cues, the alcoholics, but not social drinkers, reported higher craving ratings and had increased activity in the prefrontal cortex and anterior limbic regions. Brain activity in the left nucleus accumbens, anterior cingulate, and left orbitofrontal cortex significantly correlated with subjective craving ratings in alcohol subjects but not in control subjects. This study suggests, as did our earlier study, that alcoholics and not social drinkers, when exposed to alcohol cues, have increased brain activity in areas that reportedly subserve craving for other addictive substances.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Co
                Department of Psychology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Co, USA
                Department of Psychology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Co, USA
                Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Co
                Journal
                Dialogues Clin Neurosci
                Dialogues Clin Neurosci
                Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
                Les Laboratoires Servier (France )
                1294-8322
                1958-5969
                June 2005
                June 2005
                : 7
                : 2
                : 153-163
                Affiliations
                Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Co
                Department of Psychology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Co, USA
                Department of Psychology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Co, USA
                Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Co
                Author notes
                Article
                10.31887/DCNS.2005.7.2/lhines
                3181729
                16262210
                643f275e-b954-42ef-864d-e1b2b27ab5c1
                Copyright: © 2005 LLS

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Categories
                Clinical Research

                Neurosciences
                comorbidity,classification,alcohol dependence,etiology genetics
                Neurosciences
                comorbidity, classification, alcohol dependence, etiology genetics

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