Toward International Consensus on Science
The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) was founded on November
22, 1992, and currently includes representatives from the American Heart Association
(AHA), the European Resuscitation Council (ERC), the Heart and Stroke Foundation of
Canada (HSFC), the Australian and New Zealand Committee on Resuscitation (ANZCOR),
Resuscitation Council of Southern Africa (RCSA), the InterAmerican Heart Foundation
(IAHF), and the Resuscitation Council of Asia (RCA). Its mission is to identify and
review international science and knowledge relevant to cardiopulmonary resuscitation
(CPR) and emergency cardiovascular care (ECC) and when there is consensus to offer
treatment recommendations. Emergency cardiovascular care includes all responses necessary
to treat sudden life-threatening events affecting the cardiovascular and respiratory
systems, with a particular focus on sudden cardiac arrest.
In 1999, the AHA hosted the first ILCOR conference to evaluate resuscitation science
and develop common resuscitation guidelines. The conference recommendations were published
in the International Guidelines 2000 for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency
Cardiovascular Care.
1
Since 2000, researchers from the ILCOR member councils have evaluated resuscitation
science in 5-year cycles. The conclusions and recommendations of the 2005 International
Consensus Conference on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular
Care With Treatment Recommendations were published at the end of 2005.2, 3 The most
recent International Consensus Conference was held in Dallas in February 2010, and
this publication contains the consensus science statements and treatment recommendations
developed with input from the invited participants.
The goal of every resuscitation organisation and resuscitation expert is to prevent
premature cardiovascular death. When cardiac arrest or life-threatening emergencies
occur, prompt and skillful response can make the difference between life and death
and between intact survival and debilitation. This document summarises the 2010 evidence
evaluation of published science about the recognition and response to sudden life-threatening
events, particularly sudden cardiac arrest and peri-arrest events in victims of all
ages. The broad range and number of topics reviewed necessitated succinctness in the
consensus science statements and brevity in treatment recommendations. This supplement
is not a comprehensive review of every aspect of resuscitation medicine; not all topics
reviewed in 2005 were reviewed in 2010. This executive summary highlights the evidence
evaluation and treatment recommendations of the 2010 evidence evaluation process.
More detailed information is available in other parts of this publication.
Evidence evaluation process
To begin the current evidence evaluation process, ILCOR representatives established
6 task forces: basic life support (BLS); advanced life support (ALS); acute coronary
syndromes (ACS); paediatric life support; neonatal life support; and education, implementation,
and teams (EIT). Separate writing groups were formed to coordinate evidence evaluation
for defibrillation and mechanical devices because these overlapped with both BLS and
ALS. Each task force identified topics requiring evidence evaluation and invited international
experts to review them. To ensure a consistent and thorough approach, a worksheet
template was created with step-by-step directions to help the experts document their
literature reviews, evaluate studies, determine levels of evidence (Table 1
), and develop treatment recommendations (see Part 3: Evidence Evaluation Process).
4
When possible, 2 expert reviewers were invited to perform independent evaluations
for each topic. The worksheet authors submitted their search strategies to 1 of 3
worksheet review experts. The lead evidence evaluation expert also reviewed all worksheets
and assisted the worksheet authors in ensuring consistency and quality in the evidence
evaluation. This process is described in detail in Part 3.
4
In conjunction with the International First Aid Science Advisory Board, the AHA established
an additional task force to review evidence on first aid. This topic is summarised
in Part 13. The evidence review followed the same process but was not part of the
formal ILCOR review.
Table 1
Levels of Evidence.
C2010 Levels of Evidence for Studies of Therapeutic Interventions
LOE 1: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) (or meta-analyses of RCTs)
LOE 2: Studies using concurrent controls without true randomization (eg, “pseudo”-randomized)
LOE 3: Studies using retrospective controls
LOE 4: Studies without a control group (eg, case series)
LOE 5: Studies not directly related to the specific patient/population (eg, different
patient/population, animal models, mechanical models, etc)
C2010 Levels of Evidence for Prognostic Studies
LOE P1: Inception (prospective) cohort studies (or meta-analyses of inception cohort
studies), or validation of Clinical Decision Rule (CDR)
LOE P2: Follow-up of untreated control groups in RCTs (or meta-analyses of follow-up
studies), or derivation of CDR, or validated on split-sample only
LOE P3: Retrospective cohort studies
LOE P4: Case series
LOE P5: Studies not directly related to the specific patient/population (eg, different
patient/population, animal models, mechanical models, etc)
C2010 Levels of Evidence for Diagnostic Studies
LOE D1: Validating cohort studies (or meta-analyses of validating cohort studies)
or validation of Clinical Decision Rule (CDR)
LOE D2: Exploratory cohort study (or meta-analyses of follow-up studies), or derivation
of CDR, or a CDR validated on a split-sample only
LOE D3: Diagnostic case-control study
LOE D4: Study of diagnostic yield (no reference standard)
LOE D5: Studies not directly related to the specific patient/population (eg, different
patient/population, animal models, mechanical models, etc)
The evidence evaluation process from 2007 to 2009 initially involved 509 worksheet
authors with 569 worksheets. Some of the worksheets were merged while in other cases
there was no new evidence and the worksheets/topics were deleted. The 2010 International
Consensus Conference in February, 2010 involved 313 experts from 30 countries. A final
total of 277 specific resuscitation questions, each in standard PICO (Population,
Intervention, Comparison, Outcome) format, were considered by 356 worksheet authors
who reviewed thousands of relevant, peer-reviewed publications. Many of these worksheets
were presented and discussed at monthly or semimonthly task force international web
conferences (i.e., “webinars” that involved conference calls with simultaneous internet
conferencing). Beginning in May 2009 the evidence review and summary portions of the
evidence evaluation worksheets, with worksheet author conflict of interest (COI) statements,
were posted on the ILCOR Web site (www.ilcor.org). Journal advertisements and emails
invited public comment. Persons who submitted comments were required to indicate their
potential conflicts of interest. Public comments and potential conflicts of interest
were sent to the appropriate ILCOR task force chair and worksheet author for consideration.
To provide the widest possible dissemination of the science reviews performed for
the 2010 International Consensus Conference, the worksheets prepared for the conference
are linked from this document and can be accessed by clicking on the superscript worksheet
numbers (each begins with a W) located adjacent to headings.
During the 2010 Consensus Conference, wireless Internet access was available to all
conference participants to facilitate real-time verification of the literature. Expert
reviewers presented summaries of their evidence evaluation in plenary and concurrent
sessions. Presenters and participants then debated the evidence, conclusions, and
draft summary statements. The ILCOR task forces met daily during the conference to
discuss and debate the experts’ recommendations and develop interim consensus science
statements. Each science statement summarised the experts’ interpretation of all relevant
data on a specific topic, and included consensus draft treatment recommendations.
The wording of science statements and treatment recommendations was revised after
further review by ILCOR member organisations and the editorial board. This format
ensures that the final document represents a truly international consensus process.
At the time of submission this document represented the state-of-the-art science of
resuscitation medicine. With the permission of the relevant journal editors, several
papers were circulated among task force members if they had been accepted for publication
in peer-reviewed journals but had not yet been published. These peer-reviewed and
accepted manuscripts were included in the consensus statements.
This manuscript was ultimately approved by all ILCOR member organisations and an international
editorial board (listed on the title page of this supplement). Reviewers solicited
by the editor of Circulation and the AHA Science Advisory and Coordinating Committee
performed parallel peer reviews of this document before it was accepted for publication.
This document is being published online simultaneously by Circulation and Resuscitation,
although the version in the latter publication does not include the section on first
aid.
Management of potential conflicts of interest
In order to ensure the evidence evaluation process was free from commercial bias,
extensive conflict of interest management principles were instituted immediately following
the completion of the 2005 Consensus on CPR and ECC Science and Treatment Recommendations
(CoSTR), concurrent with the start of the 2010 CoSTR process. All of the participants
were governed by the COI management principles regardless of their role in the CoSTR
process. COI disclosure was required from all participants and was updated annually
or when changes occurred. Commercial relationships were considered at every stage
of the evidence evaluation process and, depending on the nature of the relationship
and their role in the evidence evaluation process, participants were restricted from
some activities (i.e., leading, voting, deciding, writing, discussing) that directly
or indirectly related to that commercial interest. While the focus of the process
was the evaluation of the scientific evidence, attention was given to potential COI
throughout the CoSTR process.5, 6, 7 This policy is described in detail in Part 4:
“Management of Potential Conflicts of Interest.”
8
Applying science to improve survival
From consensus on science to guidelines
This document presents international consensus statements that summarise the science
of resuscitation and, wherever possible, treatment recommendations. ILCOR member organisations
will subsequently publish resuscitation guidelines that are consistent with the science
in this consensus document, but the organisations will also take into account geographic,
economic, and system differences in practice; availability of medical devices and
drugs (e.g., not all devices and drugs reviewed in this publication are available
and approved for use in all countries); and ease or difficulty of training. All ILCOR
member organisations are committed to minimising international differences in resuscitation
practice and optimising the effectiveness of resuscitation practice, instructional
methods, teaching aids, training networks and outcomes (see Part 2: ILCOR Collaboration).
The recommendations of the 2010 International Consensus Conference confirm the safety
and effectiveness of current approaches, acknowledge other approaches as ineffective,
and introduce new treatments resulting from evidence-based evaluation. New and revised
treatment recommendations do not imply that clinical care that involves the use of
previously published guidelines is either unsafe or ineffective. Implications for
education and retention were also considered when developing the final treatment recommendations.
Ischaemic heart disease is the leading cause of death in the world.9, 10 In addition,
many newly born infants die worldwide as the result of respiratory distress immediately
after birth. However, most out-of-hospital victims die without receiving the interventions
described in this publication.
The actions linking the adult victim of sudden cardiac arrest with survival are called
the adult Chain of Survival. The links in the Chain of Survival used by many resuscitation
councils include prevention of the arrest, early recognition of the emergency and
activation of the emergency medical services (EMS) system, early and high-quality
CPR, early defibrillation, rapid ALS, and postresuscitation care. The links in the
infant and child Chain of Survival are prevention of conditions leading to cardiopulmonary
arrest, early and high-quality CPR, early activation of the EMS system, and early
ALS.
The most important determinant of survival from sudden cardiac arrest is the presence
of a trained lay rescuer who is ready, willing, and able to act. Although some ALS
techniques improve survival,11, 12 these improvements are usually less significant
than the increase in survival rates that can result from higher rates of lay rescuer
(bystander) CPR and establishment of automated external defibrillation programs in
the community.13, 14, 15, 16, 17 Thus, our greatest challenges remain the education
of the lay rescuer and understanding and overcoming the barriers that prevent even
trained rescuers from performing high-quality CPR. We must increase the effectiveness
and efficiency of instruction, improve skills retention, and reduce barriers to action
for both basic and ALS providers. Similarly, the placement and use of automated external
defibrillators (AEDs) in the community should be encouraged to enable defibrillation
within the first minutes after a ventricular fibrillation (VF) sudden cardiac arrest.
The Universal Algorithm
Several of the new treatment recommendations cited in this document are included in
the updated ILCOR Universal Cardiac Arrest Algorithm (Fig. 1
). This algorithm is intended to apply to attempted resuscitation of infant, child,
and adult victims of cardiac arrest (excluding newly borns). Every effort has been
made to keep this algorithm simple yet make it applicable to treatment of cardiac
arrest victims of all ages and in most circumstances. Modification will be required
in some situations, and these exceptions are highlighted elsewhere in this document.
Each resuscitation organisation has based its guidelines on this ILCOR algorithm,
although there will be regional modifications.
Fig. 1
The Universal Algorithm.
Rescuers begin CPR if the adult victim is unresponsive with absent or abnormal breathing,
such as an occasional gasp. A single compression–ventilation ratio of 30:2 is used
for the lone lay rescuer of an infant, child, or adult victim (excluding newly borns).
This single ratio is designed to simplify teaching, promote skills retention, increase
the number of compressions given, and decrease interruptions in compressions. The
most significant adult BLS change in this document is a recommendation for a CAB (compressions,
airway, breathing) sequence instead of an ABC (airway, breathing, compressions) sequence
to minimise delay to initiation of compressions and resuscitation. In other words,
rescuers of adult victims should begin resuscitation with compressions rather than
opening the airway and delivery of breaths.
Once a defibrillator is attached, if a shockable rhythm is confirmed, a single shock
is delivered. Irrespective of the resultant rhythm, CPR starting with chest compressions
should resume immediately after each shock to minimise the “no-flow” time (i.e., time
during which compressions are not delivered, for example, during rhythm analysis).
ALS interventions are outlined in a box at the center of the algorithm. Once an advanced
airway (tracheal tube or supraglottic airway) has been inserted, rescuers should provide
continuous chest compressions (without pauses for ventilations) and ventilations at
a regular rate (avoiding hyperventilation).
The 2005 International Consensus on Science emphasised the importance of minimal interruption
of chest compressions because 2005 evidence documented the frequency of interruptions
in chest compressions during both in-hospital and out-of-hospital CPR and the adverse
effects of such interruptions in attaining resumption of spontaneous circulation (ROSC).18,
19, 20 In 2010, experts agree that rescuers should be taught to adhere to all four
metrics of CPR: adequate rate, adequate depth, allowing full chest recoil after each
compression and minimising pauses (e.g., hands off time) in compressions.
Most significant developments in resuscitation from 2005 to 2010
Although resuscitation practices are usually studied as single interventions, they
are actually performed as a large sequence of actions, each with its own timing and
quality of performance. It may be difficult or impossible to assess the contribution
of any one action (energy level for defibrillation, airway maneuver, drug) on the
most important outcomes, such as neurologically intact survival to discharge. In fact,
it is likely that it is the combination of actions, each performed correctly, in time
and in order, that results in optimal survival and function. A few studies give insight
into this necessary shift from studying of changes in individual actions (point improvements)
to studying the effects of changing the entire sequence of actions (flow improvement).21,
22
The compression–ventilation ratio was one of the most controversial topics of the
2005 International Consensus Conference. The experts began the 2005 conference acknowledging
that rates of survival from cardiac arrest to hospital discharge were low, averaging
≤6% internationally,23, 24 and that survival rates had not increased substantially
in recent years. That observation led to the 2005 change to a universal compression–ventilation
ratio for all lone rescuers of victims of all ages and to an emphasis on the importance
of CPR quality throughout the 2005 Consensus on CPR and ECC Science With Treatment
Recommendations (CoSTR) document and subsequent ILCOR member council guidelines.
25
Resuscitation outcomes vary considerably among regions.26, 27 In recent studies the
outcome from cardiac arrest, particularly from shockable rhythms, is improved.28,
29, 30, 31, 32, 33 Moreover, there is an association between implementation of new
resuscitation guidelines and improved outcome.31, 33 However, there is also evidence
that new guidelines can take from 1.5 to 4 years to implement.34, 35
There have been many developments in resuscitation science since 2005 and these are
highlighted below.
Factors affecting lay rescuer CPR performance
During the past 5 years, there has been an effort to simplify CPR recommendations
and emphasise the importance of high-quality CPR. Large observational studies from
investigators in member countries of the RCA, the newest member of ILCOR,36, 37, 38,
39 and other studies40, 41 have provided significant data about the effects of bystander
CPR.
CPR quality
Strategies to reduce the interval between stopping chest compressions and delivery
of a shock (the preshock pause) will improve the chances of shock success.42, 43 These
data are driving major changes in training of resuscitation teams. Data downloaded
from CPR-sensing and feedback-enabled defibrillators can be used to debrief resuscitation
teams and improve CPR quality.
44
In-hospital CPR registries
The National Registry of CPR (NRCPR) and other registries are providing valuable information
about the epidemiology and outcomes of in-hospital resuscitation in adults and children.45,
46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52
Insufficient evidence on devices and ALS drugs
Many devices remain under investigation, and at the time of the 2010 Consensus Conference
there was insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the use of any mechanical
devices. There are still no data showing that any drugs improve long-term outcome
after cardiac arrest.
21
Clearly further information is needed.
Importance of post-cardiac arrest care
It is now clear that organised post-cardiac arrest care with emphasis on protocols
for optimising cardiovascular and neurological care, including therapeutic hypothermia,
can improve survival to hospital discharge among victims who achieve ROSC after cardiac
arrest.22, 53, 54 Although it is not yet possible to determine the individual effect
of many of these therapies, it is clear that this “bundle of care” can improve outcome.
Therapeutic hypothermia has been shown independently to improve outcome after adult
witnessed out-of-hospital VF cardiac arrest and after neonatal hypoxic-ischaemic insult.
Since 2005, two nonrandomised studies with concurrent controls indicated possible
benefit of hypothermia after cardiac arrest from other initial rhythms in-hospital
and out-of-hospital,55, 56 and other studies with historic controls have shown benefit
for therapeutic hypothermia after out-of-hospital all-rhythm cardiac arrests in adults.22,
57, 58, 59, 60
Studies of newborns with birth asphyxia61, 62 showed that therapeutic hypothermia
(33.5–34.5 °C) up to 72 h after resuscitation has an acceptable safety profile and
was associated with better survival and long-term neurological outcome. Retrospective
studies of children following cardiac arrest failed to demonstrate benefit of therapeutic
hypothermia, but a well-designed multicentre prospective randomised trial is in progress.
Many studies in recent years have attempted to identify comatose post-cardiac arrest
patients who have no prospects of good neurological recovery.
63
It is now recognised that the use of therapeutic hypothermia invalidates the prognostication
decision criteria that were established before hypothermia therapy was implemented:
recent studies have documented occasional good outcomes in patients who would previously
have met criteria predicting poor outcome (Cerebral Performance Category 3, 4, or
5).64, 65
Education and implementation, including retraining
Basic and advanced life support knowledge and skills can deteriorate in as little
as 3–6 months. Quality of education, frequent assessments and, when needed, refresher
training are recommended to maintain resuscitation knowledge and skills.
Summary of the 2010 ILCOR Consensus on Science With Treatment Recommendations
Adult BLS
The 2010 International Consensus Conference addressed many questions related to the
performance of BLS. These have been grouped into (1) epidemiology and recognition
of cardiac arrest, (2) chest compressions, (3) airway and ventilation, (4) compression–ventilation
sequence, (5) special situations, (6) EMS system, and (7) risks to the victim. Defibrillation
is discussed separately in Part 6 because it is both a basic and an ALS skill.
There have been several important advances in the science of resuscitation since the
2005 ILCOR review. The following is a summary of the most important evidence-based
recommendations for performance of BLS:
•
Lay rescuers begin CPR if the adult victim is unresponsive and not breathing normally
(ignoring occasional gasps) without assessing the victim's pulse.
•
Following initial assessment, rescuers begin CPR with chest compressions rather than
opening the airway and delivering rescue breathing.
•
All rescuers, trained or not, should provide chest compressions to victims of cardiac
arrest. A strong emphasis on delivering high-quality chest compressions remains essential:
push hard to a depth of at least 2 in. or 5 cm at a rate of at least 100 compressions
per minute, allow full chest recoil after each compression, and minimise interruptions
in chest compressions.
•
Trained rescuers should also provide ventilations with a compression–ventilation ratio
of 30:2.
•
EMS dispatchers should provide telephone instruction in chest compression-only CPR.
Epidemiology and recognition of cardiac arrest
Early recognition is a key step in initiating early treatment of cardiac arrest; this
recognition requires identification of the most accurate method of determining cardiac
arrest. In general rescuers should begin CPR if an adult is unresponsive and not breathing
normally (disregarding occasional gasps). Healthcare providers cannot reliably determine
the presence or absence of a pulse, so CPR should not be delayed if a pulse is not
immediately found in the unresponsive adult victim who is not breathing normally.
Lay rescuers cannot reliably determine the cause of an arrest, so it is not realistic
to expect them to alter the response sequence to the likely aetiology of each arrest.
Chest compressions
Several components of chest compressions can alter effectiveness: hand position, position
of the rescuer, position of the victim, compression depth, chest recoil, and duty
cycle (see definition, below). Compression depth should at least be 2 in. (5 cm).
Evidence for these techniques was reviewed in an attempt to define the optimal method.
Compressions only and compressions plus ventilations
All rescuers should perform chest compressions for all patients in cardiac arrest.
Chest compressions alone are recommended for untrained laypersons responding to victims
of cardiac arrest. Performing chest compressions alone is reasonable for trained laypersons
if they are incapable of delivering airway and breathing maneuver to cardiac arrest
victims. Providing chest compressions with ventilations is reasonable for trained
laypersons who are capable of giving CPR with ventilations to cardiac arrest victims.
Professional rescuers should provide chest compressions with ventilations for cardiac
arrest victims. There is insufficient evidence to support or refute the effectiveness
of the combination of chest compressions plus airway opening and oxygen inflation
(compared with conventional CPR) by professional rescuers during the first few minutes
of resuscitation from cardiac arrest.
Airway and ventilation
The best method of obtaining an open airway and the optimum frequency and volume of
artificial ventilation were reviewed. The recommendations are unchanged from 2005.
Compression–ventilation sequence
In the 2005 International Consensus Conference recommendations, the recommended sequence
of CPR actions was: airway, breathing, and circulation/chest compressions (ABC). In
this 2010 document, in an attempt to shorten the delay to first chest compressions
for adult victims, experts came to the consensus that rescuers may consider starting
CPR with chest compressions rather than ventilations (the sequence will then be “CAB”).
Rescuers should minimise interruptions in chest compressions during the resuscitation
attempt.
Any recommendation for a specific CPR compression–ventilation ratio represents a compromise
between the need to generate blood flow and the need to supply oxygen to the lungs
and remove CO2 from the blood. At the same time any such ratio must be taught to would-be
rescuers, so the effect of compression–ventilation ratios on skills acquisition and
retention must be considered. A compression–ventilation ratio of 30:2 remains reasonable
for an adult victim of cardiac arrest when no advanced airway is in place.
Special situations (cervical spine injury, facedown)
It is reasonable to roll a victim who is facedown and unresponsive to the supine position
to assess breathing and initiate resuscitation. Concern for protecting the neck should
not hinder the evaluation process or life saving procedures.
EMS system
Recognition of cardiac arrest as the cause of collapse is rarely simple and requires
EMS dispatchers to elicit critical information from the caller. Failure to recognise
the true cause of the collapse occurs in as many as 50% of cases of cardiac arrest;
this failure precludes the implementation of bystander CPR and lowers the victim's
chance of survival.
66
When attempting to identify a cardiac arrest victim, the EMS dispatcher should inquire
about the victim's absence of consciousness and quality of breathing (normal/not normal).
Dispatchers should be specifically educated about identification of abnormal breathing
in order to improve recognition of adult cardiac arrest. The correct identification
of cardiac arrest may be increased by careful attention to the caller's spontaneous
comments and by focused questions, including questions about seizures and gasping.
Bystanders who call their local emergency response number should receive initial instructions
on performing CPR. Dispatchers should provide compression-only CPR instructions to
untrained rescuers for adults with suspected sudden cardiac arrest. If a dispatcher
suspects asphyxial arrest, it is reasonable to provide instructions for rescue breathing
followed by chest compressions. Quality-improvement efforts should assess the accuracy
and timeliness of dispatcher recognition of cardiac arrest and the delivery of CPR
instructions.
Risks to the victim
Many rescuers are concerned that delivering chest compressions to a victim who is
not in cardiac arrest will lead to serious complications, and thus they do not initiate
CPR for some victims of cardiac arrest. In individuals with presumed cardiac arrest,
bystander CPR rarely leads to serious harm in victims who are eventually found not
to be cardiac arrest; therefore, performance of bystander CPR should be strongly encouraged.
67
Defibrillation
The Defibrillation Task Force considered many questions related to adult defibrillation.
In general, the 2010 International Consensus Conference recommendations contain no
major differences from the 2005 recommendations. The questions have been grouped into
the following categories: (1) CPR before defibrillation, (2) electrode–patient interface,
(3) defibrillation strategy, (4) special situations, and (5) related defibrillation
topics.
There are several knowledge gaps created by the lack of high-quality, large clinical
studies. These include the minimal acceptable first-shock success rate, characteristics
of the optimal biphasic waveform, optimal energy levels for specific waveforms, and
the best shock strategy (fixed versus escalating).
CPR before defibrillation
Whether a period of CPR should be performed before defibrillation in VF, especially
after long response times, continues to be the subject of intense debate. The theoretical
rationale for performing CPR before shock delivery is to improve coronary perfusion
and thereby the chances of achieving sustained ROSC; however, there is inconsistent
evidence to support or refute a delay in defibrillation to provide a period (90 s
to 3 min) of CPR for patients in VF/pulseless ventricular tachycardia (VT) cardiac
arrest. If more than one rescuer is present, one rescuer should provide chest compressions
while the other activates the emergency response system, retrieves the AED and prepares
to use it.
Electrode–patient interface
There are only a few studies comparing differences in outcome associated with use
of different electrode–patient interfaces; many studies compare secondary end points
such as the effect on transthoracic impedance. In ventricular arrhythmias there is
no evidence to suggest that transthoracic impedance affects shock success. When using
biphasic defibrillators for both pulseless VT/VF defibrillation and conversion of
atrial fibrillation, self-adhesive defibrillator pads are safe and effective and are
an acceptable alternative to standard defibrillation paddles. Hand-held paddles are
preferable when using monophasic defibrillators for cardioversion of atrial fibrillation.
It is reasonable to place paddles or pads on the exposed chest in an anterolateral
position. Acceptable alternative positions are the anteroposterior (paddles and pads)
and apex-posterior (pads). There is insufficient evidence to make specific recommendations
for the optimal electrode size for external defibrillation; however, it is reasonable
to use a pad size <8 cm for adults. In terms of cardiac arrest outcomes there is insufficient
evidence to recommend a specific composition of the conductive material of defibrillation
electrodes.
Defibrillation strategy
All new defibrillators deliver shocks using a variety of biphasic waveforms. Although
it has not been demonstrated conclusively in randomised clinical studies that biphasic
defibrillators save more lives than monophasic defibrillators, biphasic defibrillators
achieve higher first-shock success rates. Shock success is usually defined as termination
of VF 5 s after the shock. There is insufficient evidence to recommend any specific
biphasic waveform. In the absence of biphasic defibrillators, monophasic defibrillators
are acceptable.
Several different biphasic waveforms exist, but no human studies have compared different
biphasic waveforms and different energy levels related to defibrillation success or
survival. For all waveforms insufficient evidence exists to make clear recommendations;
however, it is reasonable to start at an energy level of 150–200 J for biphasic truncated
exponential waveform for defibrillation of pulseless VT/VF cardiac arrest. There is
insufficient evidence to determine the initial energy levels for any other biphasic
waveform. Although evidence is limited, because of the lower total shock success for
monophasic defibrillation, initial and subsequent shocks using this waveform should
be at 360 J.
When defibrillation is required, a single shock should be provided with resumption
of chest compressions/CPR immediately after the shock. Chest compressions should not
be delayed for rhythm reanalysis or a pulse check immediately after a shock. CPR should
not be interrupted until rhythm reanalysis is undertaken. For second and subsequent
biphasic shocks the same initial energy level is acceptable. It is reasonable to increase
the energy level when possible.
There are no survival differences between defibrillation in semiautomatic and manual
modes during in-hospital or out-of-hospital resuscitation; however, the semiautomatic
mode is preferred because it is easier to use and may deliver fewer inappropriate
shocks. Trained personnel may deliver defibrillation in manual mode. Use of the manual
mode enables chest compressions to be continued during charging, thereby minimising
the preshock pause. For rescuers using the defibrillator in manual mode, electrocardiographic
recognition skills are essential and frequent team training is helpful. The defibrillation
mode (semiautomatic versus manual) that results in the best outcome will be influenced
by the system, the provider's skills and training, and accuracy of electrocardiographic
recognition.
Biphasic defibrillators are preferred for cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. There
is no evidence to recommend a specific waveform, energy level, or strategy (fixed
versus escalating) for cardioversion when using biphasic defibrillators. For cardioversion
using monophasic defibrillators a high initial energy (360 J) seems preferable.
Electrical therapy in special situations
Electric pacing is not effective as a routine treatment in patients with asystolic
cardiac arrest. Percussion pacing is not recommended in cardiac arrest in general;
however, fist pacing may be considered in haemodynamically unstable bradyarrhythmias
until an electric pacemaker (transcutaneous or transvenous) is available. The use
of epicardial wires to pace the myocardium after cardiac surgery is effective.
In patients with an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) or a permanent pacemaker,
the placement of pads/paddles should not delay defibrillation. The defibrillator pad/paddle
should be placed on the chest wall ideally at least 8 cm from the generator position.
Anterior–posterior and anterior–lateral pad/paddle placements on the chest are acceptable
in patients with an ICD or a permanent pacemaker.
Related defibrillation topics
There is insufficient evidence to support routine use of VF waveform analysis to guide
defibrillation management in adult in-hospital and out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.
Rescuers should take precautions to minimise sparking (by careful pad/paddle placement,
prevention of contact, etc.) during attempted defibrillation. Rescuers should try
to ensure that defibrillation is not attempted in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere.
CPR techniques and devices
The success of any technique or device depends on the education and training of the
rescuers. A device or technique that provides good-quality CPR and potentially better
outcome when used by a highly trained team or in a test setting may result in frequent
interruptions in CPR when used in an actual clinical setting.
18
As with any clinical practice intervention, the process must be monitored to assess
for unintended adverse consequences.
Although no circulatory adjunct is currently recommended as preferable to manual CPR
for routine use, some circulatory adjuncts are being used in both out-of-hospital
and in-hospital resuscitation attempts. If a circulatory adjunct is used, rescuers
should be well-trained and a program of continuous surveillance should be in place
to ensure that use of the adjunct does not adversely affect survival.
The following CPR techniques and devices were reviewed during the 2010 International
Consensus Conference: interposed abdominal compression CPR, active compression–decompression
CPR, open-chest CPR, load-distributing band CPR, mechanical piston (thumper) CPR,
Lund University Cardiac Arrest System (LUCAS) CPR, and the impedance threshold device
(ITD). Interposed abdominal compression CPR has not been studied in humans since 1994.
Active compression–decompression (ACD) CPR has not been studied in humans since 1999,
although a meta-analysis comparing ACD CPR with standard CPR was published in 2004
and showed no significant increase in rates of immediate survival or hospital discharge.
68
There are insufficient data to support or refute the routine use of open-chest CPR,
load-distributing band CPR, LUCAS CPR, mechanical piston CPR, or the ITD instead of
standard CPR. On the basis of case reports and case series
69
it may be reasonable to consider load-distributing band or LUCAS CPR to maintain continuous
chest compressions while the patient undergoes percutaneous coronary intervention
(PCI) or computed tomography (CT) or similar diagnostic studies when provision of
manual CPR would be difficult.
ALS
The ILCOR ALS Task Force reviewed the topics of (1) airway and ventilation, (2) support
of circulation during cardiac arrest, (3) peri-arrest arrhythmias, (4) cardiac arrest
in special situations, (5) identification of reversible causes, (6) post-cardiac arrest
care, (7) prognostication, and (8) organ donation.
The most important developments and recommendations in ALS since the 2005 ILCOR review
have been:
•
The use of capnography to confirm and continually monitor tracheal tube placement
and quality of CPR.
•
More precise guidance on control of glucose in adults with sustained ROSC. Blood glucose
values >180 mg dL−1 (>10 mmol L−1) should be treated and hypoglycaemia avoided.
•
Additional evidence, albeit lower level, for use of therapeutic hypothermia for comatose
survivors of cardiac arrest initially associated with nonshockable rhythms.
•
Recognition that many accepted predictors of poor outcome in comatose survivors of
cardiac arrest are unreliable, especially if the patient has been treated with therapeutic
hypothermia. There is inadequate evidence to recommend a specific approach to predicting
poor outcome in post-cardiac arrest patients treated with therapeutic hypothermia.
•
The recognition that adults who progress to brain death after resuscitation from out-of-hospital
cardiac arrest (OHCA) should be considered for organ donation.
•
The recommendation that implementation of a comprehensive, structured treatment protocol
may improve survival after cardiac arrest.
Airway and ventilation
Consensus conference topics related to the management of airway and ventilation are
categorised as basic airway devices, cricoid pressure, advanced airway devices, confirmation
of advanced airway placement, oxygenation, and strategies for ventilation. The use
of oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal airways has never been studied in cardiac arrest,
but their use in this context remains reasonable.
The routine use of cricoid pressure to prevent aspiration in cardiac arrest is not
recommended. If cricoid pressure is used during cardiac arrest, the pressure should
be adjusted, relaxed, or released if it impedes ventilation or placement of an advanced
airway.
The tracheal tube was once considered the optimal method of managing the airway during
cardiac arrest. There is considerable evidence that without adequate training or ongoing
skills maintenance, the incidence of failed intubations and complications (e.g., unrecognised
oesophageal intubation or unrecognised dislodgment) is unacceptably high.70, 71, 72,
73, 74, 75 Prolonged attempts at tracheal intubation are harmful because the cessation
of chest compressions during this time will compromise coronary and cerebral perfusion.
Alternatives to the tracheal tube that have been studied during actual and manikin
CPR include the bag and mask and supraglottic airway devices such as the laryngeal
mask airway (LMA), Combitube, the laryngeal tube, and the I-gel. Studies comparing
the supraglottic airway with tracheal intubation have generally compared insertion
time and ventilation success rates. No study has shown an effect of the method of
ventilation on survival.
There are no data to support the routine use of any specific approach to airway management
during cardiac arrest. The best approach depends on the precise circumstances of the
cardiac arrest and the competence of the rescuer. There is inadequate evidence to
define the optimal timing of advanced airway placement during cardiac arrest. Healthcare
professionals trained to use supraglottic airway devices may consider their use for
airway management during cardiac arrest and as a backup or rescue airway in a difficult
or failed tracheal intubation.
Waveform capnography is recommended to confirm and continuously monitor the position
of a tracheal tube in victims of cardiac arrest and it should be used in addition
to clinical assessment (auscultation and direct visualization are suggested).
If waveform capnography is not available, a nonwaveform CO2 detector or oesophageal
detector device in addition to clinical assessment can be used. Thoracic impedance
may be used as an adjunctive measure to diagnose airway placement in patients with
cardiac arrest; however, clinical decisions should not be based solely on thoracic
impedance measurement until further study has confirmed its utility and accuracy in
this population.
There is insufficient evidence to support or refute the use of a titrated oxygen concentration
or constant 21% oxygen (room air) when compared with 100% oxygen during adult cardiac
arrest. In the absence of other data, there is no reason to change the current treatment
algorithm, which includes use of 100% oxygen during adult cardiac arrest.
There is insufficient evidence to support or refute the use of passive oxygen delivery
during CPR to improve outcomes (ROSC, hospital discharge rate, and improved neurological
survival) when compared with oxygen delivery by positive-pressure ventilation.
There is insufficient evidence to support or refute monitoring peak pressure and minute
ventilation to improve outcome from cardiac arrest. There is indirect evidence that
monitoring the respiratory rate with real-time feedback is effective in avoiding hyperventilation
and achieving ventilation rates closer to recommended values, but there is no evidence
that ROSC or survival is improved. Continuous capnography or capnometry monitoring
if available may be beneficial by providing feedback on the effectiveness of chest
compressions.
Support of circulation during cardiac arrest
Questions related to circulatory support during cardiac arrest that were discussed
during the 2010 International Consensus Conference were categorised as (1) timing
of drug delivery, (2) use of vasopressors during cardiac arrest, (3) use of other
drugs during cardiac arrest, (4) use of intravenous (IV) fluids, and (5) provision
of extracorporeal support. It is recognised that the vast majority of studies assessing
the effects of drugs on survival have not been able to control for the quality of
CPR. Furthermore, most drug evaluations to date have been conducted before recent
advances in post-cardiac arrest care, including therapeutic hypothermia. Because most
drug trials have, at most, demonstrated only short-term outcome advantage, it may
be important to evaluate long-term outcome when these drugs are combined with optimised
post-cardiac arrest care. One study compared the use of IV access and drugs (epinephrine,
amiodarone, atropine, vasopressin, without isolating the effect of each individual
drug alone), with no IV access and no drugs in adult out-of-hospital CPR. There was
demonstrated improvement in ROSC and survival to hospital and intensive care unit
admission but no difference in survival to discharge or neurological outcomes at discharge
and 1-year follow-up.
21
However, this study was not powered to detect clinically meaningful differences in
long-term outcome. Similarly, one study
76
with a “before and after” design compared various outcomes after OHCA and was not
able to demonstrate any improvements after introduction of ALS (epinephrine, atropine,
lidocaine). Neither of these studies is able to isolate outcomes specifically related
to individual drug administration.
There is inadequate evidence to define the optimal timing or order for drug administration.
Despite the continued widespread use of epinephrine and increased use of vasopressin
during resuscitation in some countries, there is no placebo-controlled study that
shows that the routine use of any vasopressor during human cardiac arrest increases
survival to hospital discharge. There is no evidence that the routine use of other
drugs (e.g., atropine, amiodarone, lidocaine, procainamide, magnesium, buffers, calcium,
hormones, or fibrinolytics) during human CPR increases survival to hospital discharge.
There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the routine infusion of
IV fluids during resuscitation from cardiac arrest. There is also insufficient evidence
to support or refute the routine use of extracorporeal CPR in cardiac arrest.
Peri-arrest arrhythmias
Narrow-complex tachycardia (excluding atrial fibrillation)
There are 4 options for the treatment of narrow-complex tachycardia in the peri-arrest
setting: electric conversion, physical maneuvers, pharmacological conversion, and
rate control. The treatment choice depends on the stability of the patient and the
rhythm. In a haemodynamically unstable patient, narrow-complex tachycardia is best
treated with electric cardioversion; otherwise, vagal maneuvers, IV adenosine, verapamil,
and diltiazem are recommended as first-line treatment strategies. Nadolol, sotalol,
propafenone, and amiodarone may be considered.
Atrial fibrillation
Patients with atrial fibrillation who are haemodynamically unstable should receive
prompt electric cardioversion.
Rate control
β-Blockers and diltiazem are the drugs of choice for acute rate control in most patients
with atrial fibrillation and rapid ventricular response. Digoxin and amiodarone may
be used in patients with congestive heart failure; amiodarone may also result in cardioversion
to normal sinus rhythm. Magnesium and clonidine have rate-controlling effects, although
there are fewer supporting data for their use.
Rhythm control
Chemical cardioversion can be achieved with ibutilide, dofetilide, and flecainide.
Amiodarone can also be used for chemical cardioversion but is less effective. Quinidine
or procainamide may be useful for cardioversion, but their use is less well-established.
Propafenone is more effective than placebo but not as effective as amiodarone, procainamide,
or flecainide. There is no role for digoxin in chemical cardioversion.
Wide-complex tachycardia
There are 2 options for treatment of wide-complex tachycardia in the peri-arrest setting:
electric conversion and chemical conversion. The choice depends on the stability of
the patient and the rhythm. In a haemodynamically unstable patient, wide-complex tachycardia
is best treated with electric cardioversion.
Procainamide is recommended for patients with haemodynamically stable monomorphic
VT (mVT) who do not have severe congestive heart failure or acute myocardial infarction
(AMI). Amiodarone is recommended for patients with haemodynamically stable mVT with
and without either severe congestive heart failure or AMI. Sotalol may be considered
for patients with haemodynamically stable sustained mVT, including patients with AMI.
In undifferentiated regular stable wide-complex tachycardia, IV adenosine may be considered
relatively safe, may convert the rhythm to sinus, and may help diagnose the underlying
rhythm.
Polymorphic wide-complex tachycardia associated with familial long QT syndrome may
be treated with IV magnesium, pacing, and β-blockers; however, isoproterenol should
be avoided. Polymorphic wide-complex tachycardia associated with acquired long QT
syndrome may be treated with IV magnesium. The addition of pacing or IV isoproterenol
may be considered when polymorphic wide-complex tachycardia is accompanied by bradycardia
or appears to be precipitated by pauses in rhythm. Polymorphic wide-complex tachycardia
without long QT syndrome may be responsive to IV β-blockers (ischaemic VT; catecholaminergic
VT) or isoproterenol.
Bradycardia
In the peri-arrest setting the rescuer should seek and treat reversible causes of
bradycardia. In the absence of immediately reversible causes, atropine remains the
first-line drug for acute symptomatic bradycardia. If not effective, then consider
isoproterenol, epinephrine, dopamine, or transcutaneous pacing.
Cardiac arrest in special situations
The ALS Task Force reviewed special situations associated with cardiac arrest, including
avalanche, pregnancy, asthma, anaphylaxis, drug overdose and poisoning, coronary catheterisation,
heart surgery, cardiac tamponade, pulmonary embolus, and electrolyte disorders.
Cardiac arrest caused by avalanche
Avalanches occur in areas that are difficult for rescuers to access and frequently
involve multiple victims. The decision to initiate full resuscitative measures should
be determined by the number of victims and the resources available and should be informed
by the likelihood of survival. A victim buried by an avalanche is unlikely to survive
if the victim has been buried for >35 min, the airway is obstructed on extrication
and the initial core temperature is <32°, or the victim has an initial serum potassium
level >7 mmol L−1.
Cardiac arrest associated with pregnancy
There is insufficient evidence to support or refute the use of specialised obstetric
resuscitation techniques in maternal cardiac arrest or the use of therapeutic hypothermia
in the postarrest period. Treatment may be guided by understanding the physiology
of pregnancy, the importance of releasing aortocaval compression, the increased risk
for hypovolaemia, the optimal positioning for compressions, and the value of perimortem
caesarean section early in maternal cardiac arrest.
Cardiac arrest caused by asthma, anaphylaxis, or electrolyte disorders
There is insufficient evidence to suggest any routine change to resuscitation treatment
algorithms for patients with cardiac arrest caused by asthma, anaphylaxis, or electrolyte
disorders.
Cardiac arrest caused by drug overdose and poisoning
The majority of questions concerning cardiac arrest caused by drug toxicity remain
unanswered. The 2010 International Consensus Conference reviewed treatment of cardiac
arrest caused by local anesthesia, benzodiazepines, β-blockers, calcium channel blockers,
carbon monoxide, cocaine, cyanide, tricyclic antidepressants, digoxin, and opioids.
Cardiac arrest during coronary catheterisation
There are no randomised controlled trials evaluating alternative treatment strategies
versus standard care for cardiac arrest during PCI. Evidence is limited to case studies
for all interventions; thus, the data are insufficient to support or refute the use
of mechanical chest compression, cough CPR, or emergency cardiopulmonary bypass to
improve outcome of cardiac arrest during PCI.
Cardiac arrest after open or closed heart surgery
Resternotomy for patients with cardiac arrest following cardiac surgery should be
considered in an appropriately staffed and equipped intensive care unit or in the
operating suite. Resternotomy performed outside of these specialised environments
has poor results. Chest compressions should not be withheld while preparing for emergency
resternotomy. Mechanical circulatory support may be considered in the setting of cardiac
arrest following cardiac surgery. There is insufficient evidence to make any recommendations
about epinephrine dose, use of antiarrhythmics, or any other intervention separate
from those recommended in standard protocols.
Cardiac arrest caused by cardiac tamponade
Pericardiocentesis guided by echocardiography should be considered for the treatment
of cardiac arrest associated with cardiac tamponade. Non-image-guided pericardiocentesis
is an acceptable alternative if echocardiography is not available. Emergency department
thoracotomy and pericardiotomy are acceptable alternatives to operating suite thoracotomy
and pericardiotomy for treatment of traumatic cardiac arrest associated with cardiac
tamponade and can be considered for use in the treatment of nontraumatic cardiac arrest
when pericardiocentesis is unsuccessful in relieving cardiac tamponade.
Cardiac arrest caused by pulmonary embolus
Fibrinolytic therapy may be considered when pulmonary embolism is suspected as the
cause of the cardiac arrest.
Identification of reversible causes
Ultrasound during cardiac arrest
Although there are several case series, no studies specifically examine the impact
of ultrasound or echocardiography on patient outcomes in cardiac arrest.
Post-cardiac arrest care
Post-cardiac arrest treatment protocol
Before-and-after studies report an increase in survival of comatose patients with
sustained ROSC after OHCA with implementation of a comprehensive treatment protocol.22,
53, 54 Protocols include multiple elements such as hypothermia, glucose control, goal-directed
haemodynamic optimisation, ventilation, and PCI. The independent effect of each element
of the bundle of care could not be established.
Treatment of pulmonary embolism after ROSC
In patients with diagnosed or suspected pulmonary embolism after ROSC following cardiac
arrest, there is inadequate evidence to recommend for or against the use of fibrinolytic
therapy in addition to heparin. The mortality with surgical embolectomy for suspected
or diagnosed pulmonary embolism is high if it follows cardiac arrest. Surgical embolectomy
should be avoided in patients who have received CPR. There are few data on percutaneous
mechanical thromboembolectomy, but it may be beneficial and may be considered in patients
with cardiac arrest resulting from a pulmonary embolism who are not candidates for
fibrinolytic therapy.
Ventilation
After restoration of circulation, routine hyperventilation leading to hypocapnia should
be avoided to prevent additional cerebral ischaemia.
Controlled oxygenation
There is insufficient clinical evidence to support or refute the use of titrated inspired
oxygen content in the early care of cardiac arrest patients following sustained ROSC.
Support of circulation
Fluid therapy
There is insufficient evidence to support or refute the routine use of IV fluids following
sustained ROSC after cardiac arrest. Rapid infusion with cold 0.9% saline or lactated
Ringer's solution appears to be well-tolerated when used to induce therapeutic hypothermia.
On the basis of the pathophysiology of post-cardiac arrest syndrome, it is reasonable
to use IV fluids as part of a package of post-cardiac arrest care.
Haemodynamic optimisation
There are no published randomised controlled trials of early haemodynamic optimisation
after cardiac arrest. Despite limited clinical data, the known pathophysiology of
post-cardiac arrest syndrome provides a rationale for titrating haemodynamic support
to optimise organ perfusion.
Cardioactive drugs
No clinical trials have determined or compared the independent effect of vasopressor
or inotrope use in the post-cardiac arrest period on cardiovascular dysfunction and
survival to discharge. There is insufficient evidence to support or refute the routine
use of vasopressors and inotropes for improving survival in adult patients with cardiovascular
dysfunction after resuscitation from cardiac arrest.
Antiarrhythmic drugs
No controlled studies have specifically addressed the use of amiodarone, lidocaine,
or β-blockers early or immediately after resuscitation from cardiac arrest. There
is no evidence to support or refute continued administration of amiodarone or lidocaine
in post-cardiac arrest patients following ROSC.
Mechanical circulatory support
There are no studies directly addressing the use of mechanical circulatory support
in patients with sustained ROSC who have cardiovascular dysfunction.
Temperature control
Prevention and treatment of hyperthermia
There are no randomised controlled trials evaluating the effect of treatment of pyrexia
(defined as ≥37.6 °C) compared with no temperature control in patients after cardiac
arrest. However, it is well-established that patients who develop hyperthermia after
cardiac arrest have a worse prognosis. Despite the lack of evidence, it is reasonable
to treat hyperthermia if it occurs in the postresuscitation period.
Therapeutic hypothermia
Adult patients who are comatose (not responding in a meaningful way to verbal commands)
with spontaneous circulation after out-of-hospital VF cardiac arrest should be cooled
to 32–34 °C for 12–24 h. Induced hypothermia might also benefit comatose adult patients
with spontaneous circulation after OHCA from a nonshockable rhythm or in-hospital
cardiac arrest. Rapid infusion of ice-cold IV fluid at 30 mL kg−1 is a safe, feasible,
and simple method for initially lowering core temperature by up to 1.5 °C, as is application
of ice packs. When IV fluids are used to induce hypothermia, additional cooling strategies
will be required to maintain hypothermia. Limited available evidence suggests that
PCI during therapeutic hypothermia is feasible and safe and may be associated with
improved outcome.
Seizure control
No controlled clinical trials directly addressed prophylactic treatment for seizures
after cardiac arrest; consequently, there are insufficient data to support or refute
the use of specific antiseizure medication in the prevention or treatment of seizures
after ROSC.
Other supportive therapies
Blood glucose control
Strategies to treat hyperglycaemia that is >180 mg dL−1 (>10 mmol L−1) should be considered
in adult patients with sustained ROSC after cardiac arrest. Hypoglycaemia should be
avoided.
Neuroprotective therapy
The value of routine use of coenzyme Q10 in patients treated with hypothermia is not
certain. There are insufficient data to recommend for or against the use of neuroprotective
drugs (thiopental, glucocorticoids, nimodipine, lidoflazine, or diazepam) alone or
as an adjunct to therapeutic hypothermia in comatose cardiac arrest after ROSC.
Prognostication
Prognostication during cardiac arrest
End-tidal CO2 and prediction of outcome
Quantitative measurement of end-tidal CO2 may be a safe and effective noninvasive
indicator of cardiac output during CPR and an abrupt increase in end-tidal CO2 may
be an early indicator of ROSC in intubated patients. Although low values of end-tidal
CO2 are associated with a low probability of survival, there are insufficient data
to support or refute a specific threshold of end-tidal CO2 at different time intervals
as a prognostic indicator of outcome during adult cardiac arrest.
Prognostication after resuscitation
Clinical examination
There are no clinical neurological signs that reliably predict poor outcome <24 h
after cardiac arrest. In adult patients who are comatose after cardiac arrest, have
not been treated with hypothermia and have no confounding factors (e.g., hypotension,
sedatives or neuromuscular blockers), the absence of both pupillary light and corneal
reflex at ≥72 h reliably predicts poor outcome. The absence of vestibulo-ocular reflexes
at ≥24 h and a Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) motor score of 2 or less at ≥72 h are less
reliable predictors. Other clinical signs, including myoclonus, are not recommended
for predicting poor outcome.
Biochemical markers
Evidence does not support the use of serum or cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers alone
as predictors of poor outcome in comatose patients after cardiac arrest with or without
treatment with therapeutic hypothermia. Limitations of studies included small numbers
of patients or inconsistency in threshold values for predicting poor outcome.
Electrophysiological studies
No electrophysiological study reliably predicts outcome of comatose patients in the
first 24 h after cardiac arrest when therapeutic hypothermia is not used. After 24 h,
bilateral absence of the N20 cortical response to median nerve stimulation predicts
poor outcome in comatose cardiac arrest survivors not treated with therapeutic hypothermia.
In the absence of confounding circumstances such as use of sedatives or the presence
of hypotension, hypothermia, or hypoxaemia, it is reasonable to use unprocessed electroencephalography
(EEG) interpretation (specifically identifying generalised suppression to <20 μV,
burst suppression pattern with generalised epileptic activity, or diffuse periodic
complexes on a flat background) observed between 24 and 72 h after sustained ROSC
to assist in prediction of a poor outcome in comatose survivors of cardiac arrest
not treated with hypothermia.
Imaging studies
Many imaging modalities have been studied to determine their utility for prediction
of outcome in survivors of adult cardiac arrest. There are no level 1 or level 2 studies
that support the use of any imaging modality to predict outcome of comatose cardiac
arrest survivors. In general, published imaging studies were limited by small sample
sizes, variable time of imaging (many very late in the course), lack of comparison
with a standardised method of prognostication, and early withdrawal of care. Despite
tremendous potential, neuroimaging has yet to be proven as an independently accurate
modality for prediction of outcome in individual comatose cardiac arrest survivors,
and at this time there is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the routine
use of imaging studies used for this purpose.
Impact of therapeutic hypothermia on accuracy of post-cardiac arrest prognostication
There is inadequate evidence to recommend a specific approach to prognosticating poor
outcome in post-cardiac arrest patients treated with therapeutic hypothermia. There
are no clinical neurological signs, electrophysiological studies, biomarkers, or imaging
modalities that can reliably predict neurological outcome in the first 24 h after
cardiac arrest. Beyond 24 h no single parameter for predicting poor neurological outcome
in post-cardiac arrest patients treated with hypothermia is sufficiently specific.
On the basis of the limited available evidence, potentially reliable prognosticators
of poor outcome in patients treated with therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest
include bilateral absence of N20 peak on somatosensory evoked potential ≥24 h after
cardiac arrest, unreactive EEG background at 36–72 h, and the absence of both corneal
and pupillary reflexes >72 h after cardiac arrest. Limited available evidence also
suggests that (1) a GCS motor score of 2 or less at 3 days after sustained ROSC and
(2) the presence of status epilepticus are potentially unreliable prognosticators
of poor outcome in post-cardiac arrest patients treated with therapeutic hypothermia.
Serum biomarkers such as neuron-specific enolase are potentially valuable as adjunctive
studies in prognostication of poor outcome in patients treated with hypothermia, but
their reliability is limited by the relatively few patients who have been studied
and lack of assay standardisation. Given the limited available evidence, decisions
to limit care should not be made based on the results of a single prognostication
tool.
Organ donation
Several studies have suggested no difference in functional outcomes of organs transplanted
from patients who were determined to be brain-dead as a consequence of cardiac arrest
when compared with organs recovered from donors who were brain-dead from other causes.77,
78, 79 Thus, adult patients who progress to brain death after resuscitation from OHCA
should be considered for organ donation.
Acute coronary syndromes
The Acute Coronary Syndromes Task Force reviewed the evidence related to the diagnosis
and treatment of ACS in the out-of-hospital setting and during the first hours of
care in hospital, typically in the emergency department (ED). The ACS Task Force reviewed
the following topics: (1) diagnostic tests in ACS, (2) initial therapeutic interventions,
(3) reperfusion strategies, (4) additional medical therapy, and (5) healthcare system
interventions for ACS.
The following are the most important 2010 changes in recommendations for diagnosis
and treatment of ACS.80, 81
•
The history and physical examination, initial ECG, and initial serum biomarkers, even
when used in combination, cannot be used to reliably exclude ACS in the prehospital
and ED settings.
•
In contrast, chest pain observation protocols are useful for identifying patients
with suspected ACS who require admission or may be referred for provocative testing
for coronary artery disease (CAD) to identify reversible ischaemia. Such strategies
also reduce cost by reducing unnecessary hospital admissions and improve patient safety
through accurate identification of non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction
(NSTEMI) and ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI).
•
The acquisition of a prehospital 12-lead ECG is essential for identification of STEMI
patients before hospital arrival and should be used in conjunction with prearrival
hospital notification and concurrent activation of the catheterisation laboratory.
•
Nonphysicians can be trained to independently interpret 12-lead ECGs to identify patients
with STEMI. This skill is of particular value in the prehospital setting, where paramedics
can independently identify STEMI, thus reducing the need for ECG transmission, which
is not always possible.
•
Computer-assisted ECG interpretation can be used to increase diagnostic accuracy of
diagnosis for STEMI when used alone or in combination with ECG interpretation by a
trained healthcare provider.
•
STEMI systems of care can be implemented to improve the time to treatment. The following
measures have been shown to reduce the time to primary PCI (PPCI): institutional commitment,
use of a team-based approach, arranging single-call activation of the catheterisation
laboratory by the emergency physician or prehospital provider, requiring the catheterisation
laboratory to be ready in 20 min, having an experienced cardiologist always available,
and providing real-time data feedback.
•
IV β-blockers should not be given routinely in the ED or prehospital setting but rather
should be reserved for a subset of patients with hypertension or tachycardia in the
setting of ACS.
•
The routine use of high-flow supplementary oxygen in ACS is not recommended. Instead
oxygen administration should be guided by arterial oxyhaemoglobin saturation.
•
Reinforce the need for time targets for reperfusion beginning from the time of first
medical contact. The clinical circumstances that favor fibrinolysis and PCI are discussed,
including the role of prehospital fibrinolytics.
•
The prophylactic use of antiarrhythmics is discouraged.
•
Immediate angiography and PCI should be considered in patients with OHCA and ROSC.
It is reasonable to perform immediate angiography and PCI in selected patients, despite
the absence of ST-segment elevation on the ECG or prior clinical findings such as
chest pain.
Diagnostic tests in ACS
Risk stratification
Various factors may impede patients from rapidly seeking treatment. These factors
include older age, race and ethnicity, female sex, low socioeconomic status, and whether
the patient lives alone. Signs and symptoms alone are neither sensitive nor specific
and should not be used without other data for diagnosing ACS. Signs and symptoms may
be useful in combination with other important information (biomarkers, risk factors,
ECG, and other diagnostic tests) in making triage and some treatment and investigational
decisions for ACS in the out-of hospital and ED settings. A reduction in chest pain
after administration of nitroglycerin may be unrelated to the presence or absence
of ACS and should not be used as a diagnostic test or strategy in the prehospital
or ED setting.
ED interpretation of 12-lead ECG for STEMI
In patients with suspected ACS, a 12-lead-ECG should be acquired and interpreted by
prehospital or emergency providers as soon as possible after first patient contact.
The interpretation should be used for diagnosis and triage, including destination
decisions and activation of the cardiac catheterisation laboratory. If interpretation
of the prehospital ECG is not available on-site, field transmission of the ECG for
expert interpretation may be reasonable. It is reasonable for paramedics and nurses
to independently identify STEMI on a 12-lead ECG provided there is a program of mandatory
initial training followed by ongoing concurrent medical oversight of all interpretations.
Prehospital ECG interpretation should be augmented with computer interpretation. Computer
interpretation of the ECG may increase the specificity of diagnosis of STEMI, especially
for clinicians less experienced in reading ECGs. The computer interpretation should
be considered in the clinical context.
Diagnostic and prognostic test characteristics of cardiac biomarkers for ACS
Clinicians should consider the time of symptom onset, sensitivity, precision and institutional
norms of the assay, and release kinetics and clearance of the measured biomarker.
For all patients presenting to the ED with symptoms suggestive of cardiac ischaemia,
cardiac biomarker testing should be part of the initial evaluation. A cardiac-specific
troponin is the preferred biomarker. For patients who present within 6 h of onset
of symptoms suggestive of cardiac ischaemia with initially negative cardiac troponin,
it is recommended that the troponin level be remeasured between 6 and 12 h after symptom
onset. Multimarker evaluation with creatine kinase MB (CK-MB) or myoglobin in conjunction
with troponin in patients with symptoms suggestive of cardiac ischaemia may be considered
to improve the sensitivity of AMI diagnosis. There is no evidence to support the use
of troponin point-of-care testing (POCT) in isolation as a primary test in the prehospital
setting to evaluate patients with symptoms suggestive of cardiac ischaemia.
There is insufficient evidence to support the use of myoglobin, brain natriuretic
peptide (BNP), NT-proBNP, D-dimer, C-reactive protein, ischaemia-modified albumin
pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A), or interleukin-6 in isolation as primary
tests to evaluate patients with symptoms suggestive of cardiac ischaemia.
None of the currently reported clinical decision rules is adequate and appropriate
for identifying ED chest pain patients who can be safely discharged from the ED. Patients
who are less than 40 years of age with nonclassical presentations and lacking significant
past medical history and normal serial biomarkers and 12-lead ECGs have a very low
rate of short-term events.
In ED patients with suspected ACS, normal initial biomarkers, and a nonischaemic ECG,
chest pain observation protocols may be recommended as a safe and effective strategy
for evaluation. Chest pain observation protocols should include a history and physical
examination, a period of observation, serial ECGs, serial measurement of serum cardiac
markers, and either an evaluation for anatomic coronary disease or inducible myocardial
ischaemia some time after AMI is excluded. These protocols may be used to improve
accuracy in differentiating patients requiring inpatient admission or further diagnostic
testing from those who may be discharged. Chest pain protocols may be recommended
as a means to reduce length of stay, reduce hospital admissions, reduce healthcare
costs, improve diagnostic accuracy, and improve quality of life. There is no direct
evidence demonstrating that chest pain units (CPUs) or observation protocols reduce
adverse cardiovascular outcomes, particularly mortality, for patients presenting with
possible ACS, normal serum cardiac biomarkers, and a nondiagnostic ECG.
Imaging techniques
For ED patients with suspected ACS, nonischaemic ECGs, and negative biomarkers, a
noninvasive test (CT angiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging [MRI], myocardial
perfusion imaging, and echocardiography) can be useful in making the diagnosis of
ACS. Diagnostic imaging may be considered as an adjunct to serial ECGs and biomarkers
to identify patients who either require admission or are suitable for discharge from
the ED. These noninvasive tests decrease costs, length of stay, and time to diagnosis
and can provide valuable short- and long-term prognostic information on future major
cardiac events. However, there are insufficient data on mortality.
Initial therapeutic interventions
Oxygen therapy
There is insufficient evidence to support or refute the empirical use of high-flow
oxygen therapy in patients with uncomplicated AMI without signs of hypoxaemia or heart
failure. There are insufficient data to determine if high-flow oxygen therapy might
be harmful in this setting. Oxygen therapy should be initiated if dyspnoea, hypoxaemia,
or signs of heart failure or shock are present. Noninvasive monitoring of arterial
blood oxygen saturation may be used to determine the need for oxygen administration.
ACS and nitroglycerin
Although it is reasonable to consider the early administration of nitroglycerin in
selected patients without contraindications, insufficient evidence exists to support
or refute the routine administration of nitroglycerin in patients with suspected ACS.
There may be some benefit if nitroglycerin administration results in pain relief.
Analgesics and sedation
Morphine should be given IV and titrated to pain relief in patients with STEMI. Morphine
may be considered for pain relief in subjects with suspected NSTEMI. Some form of
analgesia should be considered for patients with active chest discomfort. Although
anxiolytics may be administered to patients with ACS to alleviate apprehension and
anxiety, there is no evidence that anxiolytics facilitate ECG resolution, reduce infarct
size, or decrease mortality in undifferentiated patients with suspected ACS. Lorazepam
with nitroglycerin may be considered to alleviate pain in patients with cocaine-associated
chest pain. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) other than aspirin should
not be administered and may be harmful in patients with suspected ACS; NSAIDs should
be discontinued in such patients when feasible.
Aspirin
In the absence of true allergy, aspirin should be given as soon as possible to patients
with suspected ACS. It is reasonable to consider EMS- or dispatcher-guided administration
of aspirin by bystanders despite limited direct evidence to support or refute the
practice.
Clopidogrel and other platelet ADP-receptor antagonists
Clopidogrel is recommended in addition to standard care (aspirin, anticoagulants,
and/or reperfusion) for patients determined to have moderate to high-risk non-ST-elevation
ACS and STEMI.
Prasugrel may be administered after angiography to patients with NSTEMI presenting
with stenoses amenable to PCI. ED or prehospital administration of clopidogrel should
be withheld even in patients who are not at high risk for bleeding pending consideration
of prasugrel administration following angiography. In patients who are not at high
risk for bleeding with planned PCI and who are determined to have STEMI less than
12 h after initial symptoms, prasugrel may be substituted for clopidogrel. Prasugrel
is not recommended for STEMI patients receiving fibrinolysis.
Ticagrelor (not yet approved for administration in some countries) may be given instead
of clopidogrel in addition to standard care (aspirin, anticoagulants, and/or reperfusion)
to patients determined to have non-ST-elevation ACS or STEMI managed with early invasive
strategy by hospital personnel.
Anticoagulants
For patients with non-ST-elevation ACS managed with a planned initial conservative
approach, either fondaparinux or enoxaparin are reasonable alternatives to unfractionated
heparin (UFH). For patients with non-ST-elevation ACS managed with a planned invasive
approach, either enoxaparin or UFH are reasonable choices. Bivalirudin may be considered
as an alternative but does not appear to offer an advantage over UFH. Fondaparinux
may be used in the setting of PCI but requires coadministration of UFH and does not
appear to offer an advantage over UFH alone.
For patients with non-ST-elevation ACS and renal insufficiency, bivalirudin or UFH
may be considered. For patients with non-ST-elevation ACS and increased bleeding risk
and for whom anticoagulant therapy is not contraindicated, fondaparinux or bivalirudin
are reasonable and UFH may be considered.
For patients with STEMI managed with fibrinolysis (including those in the out-of-hospital
setting), it is reasonable to administer enoxaparin instead of UFH. Patients initially
treated with enoxaparin should not be switched to UFH (or those on UFH should not
be switched to enoxaparin) to avoid increased bleeding risk. Fondaparinux may be considered
in the hospital for patients treated specifically with nonfibrin-specific thrombolytics
(i.e., streptokinase), provided the creatinine level is <3 mg dL−1.
For patients with STEMI undergoing contemporary PCI, enoxaparin may be considered
a safe and effective alternative to UFH. To avoid increased risk of bleeding, patients
initially treated with enoxaparin should not be switched to UFH (and those treated
with UFH should not be switched to enoxaparin). In comparison with UFH, fondaparinux
reduces risk of bleeding in STEMI patients undergoing PCI. There is an increased risk
of catheter thrombi with fondaparinux alone. Bivalirudin may be superior to UFH plus
glycoprotein IIb/IIIa blockers with respect to bleeding and mortality in STEMI patients
undergoing PCI. An increased rate of stent thromboses has been observed with bivalirudin
in the first 24 h after PCI.
Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa Inhibitors
There were insufficient data to support the routine use of glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors
in patients with suspected STEMI or non-ST-elevation ACS in the out-of-hospital or
ED settings. For selected high-risk patients with non-ST-elevation ACS, administration
of abciximab, eptifibatide, or tirofiban may be acceptable, provided PCI is planned.
There is an increased risk of bleeding with routine administration of glycoprotein
IIb/IIIa blockers when used with heparins. Alternatives for anticoagulation and antiplatelet
treatment might be considered instead.
Reperfusion strategies
In the majority of patients STEMI occurs as the result of a recent acute occlusion
of a major epicardial coronary artery due to the disruption of atherosclerotic plaque
and thrombus formation. Strategies aimed at restoring myocardial perfusion are an
important part of the management of these patients. Restoring coronary blood flow
and myocardial perfusion either by pharmacological (fibrinolytics) or mechanical therapy
(PCI) has been demonstrated to improve outcomes in patients presenting within 12 h
of symptom onset and later in other patient groups, such as those with cardiogenic
shock. There is evidence that prehospital fibrinolysis reduces delay to treatment,
especially in rural areas with long transit times. In these settings prehospital fibrinolysis
is a reasonable treatment strategy.
Prehospital fibrinolysis
In patients with STEMI diagnosed in the out-of-hospital setting, reperfusion may be
achieved by healthcare provider administration of fibrinolytics in the field. Alternatively
fibrinolytic therapy may be administered on arrival at the hospital. If fibrinolysis
is chosen as the reperfusion strategy, it should be started as soon as possible, ideally
in the out-of-hospital setting, and should be administered by paramedics, nurses,
or doctors under well-established protocols, competency training programs, and programs
of continuous quality improvement with medical oversight.
Choice of in-hospital reperfusion strategy
Programs should be implemented to reduce the time to PCI. Shorter intervals to reperfusion
increase myocardial salvage, whereas delays to reperfusion increase morbidity and
mortality. The precise threshold of PPCI-related delays that should trigger the decision
for fibrinolysis has not been definitively established, but time to PCI should be
as short as possible. Individual Councils will determine the acceptable limit or target
interval from first medical contact to PCI in light of likely patient factors and
available healthcare system resources, and the reader is referred to those Council-specific
guidelines for more detailed information.
For patients presenting within 12 h of symptom onset and with ECG findings consistent
with STEMI, reperfusion should be initiated as soon as possible, independently of
the method chosen. The benefit of mechanical intervention over fibrinolysis varies
considerably depending on the patient's condition and the duration of PPCI-related
delays.
The precise threshold of PPCI-related delays that should trigger the decision for
fibrinolyisis has not been definitively established, and individual Councils will
determine the acceptable limits from first medical contact to PCI in light of likely
patient factors and local healthcare system variables and resources and the reader
is referred to those Council-specific guidelines. For those patients with a contraindication
to fibrinolysis, PCI should still be pursued despite the delay, rather than offering
no reperfusion therapy.
For those STEMI patients presenting in shock, PCI (or coronary artery bypass surgery)
is the preferred reperfusion treatment. Fibrinolysis should only be considered if
there is a substantial delay to PCI.
Combined PCI and fibrinolysis
The routine use of fibrinolysis-facilitated PPCI, compared with PPCI alone, is not
recommended in patients with suspected STEMI. It is reasonable to perform angiography
and possible PCI in patients with failed fibrinolysis according to clinical signs
or insufficient ST-segment resolution or both.
Additional medical therapy
Several additional medical therapies have been proposed for ACS patients with the
goal of reducing complications from myocardial ischaemia, decreasing major adverse
cardiac events, and ultimately increasing long-term survival. Therapeutic options
include antiarrhythmics, β-blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors,
and HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins). Most data regarding the usefulness of
these therapies have not been derived from patients in the out-of-hospital or ED settings.
Traditional preventive interventions usually start with the first admission with a
confirmed diagnosis of ACS. The current evidence indicates that none play a significant
role in out-of-hospital and ED management of ACS.
Healthcare system interventions for ACS
Several systems-related strategies have been developed to improve quality of care
for patients with ACS and to reduce reperfusion delay for patients with STEMI in the
out-of-hospital setting and in the ED. These strategies focus on the use of prehospital
12-lead ECG and time-saving strategies to facilitate early diagnosis and rapid treatment
for patients with STEMI.
Out-of-hospital 12-lead ECGs performed by out-of-hospital personnel facilitate earlier
diagnosis of STEMI and provide the opportunity for rapid out-of-hospital reperfusion
or rapid triage of patients to institutions able to provide such reperfusion. EMS
personnel should acquire a 12-lead out-of-hospital ECG for all patients exhibiting
signs and symptoms of ACS and provide advance notification to receiving institutions
for patients diagnosed with STEMI. Advance notification may be achieved by direct
transmission of the ECG or interpretation of the ECG by out-of-hospital personnel
and advance notification. Advance notification should prompt preparations at the receiving
institution to provide rapid reperfusion for the arriving STEMI patient.
Hospitals should implement out-of-hospital activation of the catheterisation laboratory
for patients suspected of having STEMI who arrive by EMS transport, and first-physician
contact activation of the catheterisation laboratory for suspected STEMI patients
who arrive by other means. Hospitals may implement additional institution-specific
techniques to improve systems of care for STEMI; however, there is little evidence
to support widespread implementation. These techniques include arranging single-call
activation of the catheterisation laboratory, requiring that the catheterisation laboratory
be ready in 20 min, having the interventional cardiologist immediately available at
the hospital, providing real-time data feedback, fostering senior management commitment,
and encouraging a team-based approach.
It is reasonable to consider direct transport to PCI-capable facilities for PPCI for
patients diagnosed with STEMI by EMS in the out-of-hospital setting, bypassing closer
EDs as necessary, in systems where time intervals between first medical contact and
balloon time are brief. In patients presenting early after onset of chest pain (<2 h)
and in certain clinical subsets (age <65 years, anterior STEMI), out-of-hospital fibrinolysis
may offer similar outcomes compared with PPCI.
In patients with STEMI or new left bundle branch block (LBBB) on ECG following ROSC
after OHCA, immediate angiography and PCI should be considered. It is reasonable to
perform immediate angiography and PCI in selected patients despite the absence of
ST-segment elevation on the ECG or prior clinical findings such as chest pain. Clinical
findings of coma before PCI are common in patients with OHCA and are not a contraindication
to consideration for immediate angiography and PCI. It is reasonable to include cardiac
catheterisation in standardised post-cardiac arrest protocols as part of an overall
strategy to improve neurologically intact survival in this patient group. Therapeutic
hypothermia is recommended in combination with PPCI and should be started as early
as possible, preferably before initiation of PCI.
Paediatric BLS and ALS
The following is a list of changes and issues that required reemphasis in paediatric
basic and advanced life support.
Systems
The use of medical emergency teams (MET) or rapid response teams (RRT) has been shown
to be effective in preventing respiratory and cardiac arrests in selected paediatric
inpatient settings.
Family presence during resuscitations has been shown to be beneficial for the grieving
process and in general was not found to be disruptive. Thus, family presence is supported
if it does not interfere with the resuscitative effort.
Assessment
Many healthcare providers find it difficult to rapidly and accurately determine the
presence or absence of a pulse. On the basis of the available evidence, the task force
decided to de-emphasise but not eliminate the pulse check as part of the healthcare
provider assessment. Task force members recognised that healthcare providers who work
in specialised settings may have enhanced skills in accurate and rapid pulse checks,
although this has not been scientifically verified.
There are considerable data on the use of end-tidal CO2 measurement, capnography,
and capnometry during CPR as a measure of CPR quality and as a predictive measure
of outcome. Although capnography/capnometry may reflect the quality of CPR, there
is insufficient evidence of its reliability in predicting resuscitation success in
infants and children.
Airway and ventilation
Opening and maintaining a patent airway and providing ventilations are fundamental
elements of paediatric CPR, especially because cardiac arrest often results from,
or is complicated by, asphyxia. There are no new data to change the 2005 ILCOR recommendation
to use manual airway maneuver (with or without an oropharyngeal airway) and bag-mask
ventilation for children who require airway control or positive-pressure ventilation
for short periods in the out-of-hospital setting. When airway control or bag-mask
ventilation is not effective, placement of a supraglottic airway may be helpful when
performed by properly trained personnel.
Data suggest that the routine use of cricoid pressure (Sellick maneuver) when performing
tracheal intubation may not protect against aspiration and may make intubation more
difficult.
Routine confirmation of tracheal tube position with capnography/capnometry is recommended
with the caveat that infants and children in cardiac arrest may have concentrations
of exhaled CO2 below detection limits for colorimetric devices.
After ROSC, toxic oxygen byproducts (reactive oxygen species, free radicals) are produced
that may damage cell membranes, proteins, and DNA (reperfusion injury). Although there
are no clinical studies in children outside the newborn period comparing different
concentrations of inspired oxygen during and immediately after resuscitation, animal
data from newborn resuscitation studies suggest that it is prudent to titrate inspired
oxygen after return of a perfusing rhythm to prevent hyperoxaemia.
Chest compressions
Chest compression-only CPR is very attractive because it is easier to teach than conventional
CPR and immediate chest compressions may be beneficial for resuscitation from sudden
death due to VF/pulseless VT. Animal studies showed that conventional CPR, including
ventilations and chest compressions, is best for resuscitation from asphyxial cardiac
arrest. In a large study of out-of-hospital paediatric cardiac arrest,
38
children with asphyxial arrest who received chest compressions plus ventilations had
a significantly better survival than paediatric cardiac arrest victims who were treated
with chest compressions alone; the few children with asphyxial arrest who received
compression-only CPR had no better outcome than the children who received no CPR.
To be effective, chest compressions must be deep, but it is difficult to determine
the optimal depth in infants and children; should it be expressed as a fraction of
the depth of the chest or an absolute measurement? How can this be made practical
and teachable? After much discussion the task force decided that the best current
data support a recommended compression depth of at least one third of the chest anterior–posterior
dimension or approximately 4 cm (1.5 in.) in infants and 5 cm (2 in.) in children.
Compression–ventilation ratio in infants
The ILCOR Neonatal Task Force continues to recommend a compression–ventilation ratio
of 3:1 for resuscitation of the newly born in the delivery room, with a pause for
ventilation whether or not the infant has an advanced tracheal airway in place. The
Paediatric Task Force reaffirmed its recommendation for a 15:2 ratio for 2-rescuer
infant or child CPR with a pause for ventilation in patients without an advanced airway,
and continuous compressions without a pause for ventilation plus a ventilation rate
of about 8–10 breaths per minute for patients with an advanced airway. No previous
recommendations were made for hospitalised newborns who received care in areas other
than the delivery area or when arrest aetiology is primary cardiac rather than asphyxial.
For example, consider the case of a 3-week-old infant who has a cardiac arrest after
cardiac surgery. In the neonatal intensive care unit such an infant would be resuscitated
according to the protocol for the newly born, but if the same newborn were in the
paediatric intensive care unit, resuscitation would be performed according to the
paediatric (infant/child) protocol. A resolution to this dilemma is suggested on the
basis of the arrest aetiology and ease of training.
Vascular access and drug delivery
There is no new evidence to change the 2005 ILCOR recommendations regarding vascular
access, including continued emphasis on the early use of intraosseous access and de-emphasis
of the tracheal route of drug delivery. Epidemiological data, largely from the National
Registry of CPR, reported an association between administration of vasopressin, calcium,
or sodium bicarbonate and an increased likelihood of death following in-hospital cardiac
arrest. These data, however, cannot be interpreted as establishing a cause-and-effect
relationship. The association may be due to the greater likelihood of use of these
drugs in children who fail to respond to standard BLS and ALS interventions. These
studies and data in adult victims raise questions regarding the benefit of IV medications
during resuscitation and reaffirm the emphasis on the performance of high-quality
CPR.
Defibrillation
The Paediatric Task Force evaluated a number of issues related to defibrillation,
including safe and effective energy dosing, stacked versus single shocks, use of AEDs
in infants <1 year of age and paddle/pad type, size, and position. There were a few
new human and animal studies on these topics, but the Level of Evidence was generally
3–5.
No new data are available to support a change in drug treatment of recurrent or refractory
VT/VF. There were several human and animal publications on defibrillation-energy dosing
for VF, but the data were contradictory, and the optimal safe and effective energy
dose remains unknown. The new recommendation of an initial dose of 2–4 J kg−1 (in
2005, the recommended initial dose was 2 J kg−1) is based on cohort studies showing
low success in termination of VF in paediatric patients with 2 J kg−1. However, these
studies do not provide data on the success or safety of higher energy doses. The continued
recommendation for a single initial shock rather than stacked shocks is extrapolated
from the ever-increasing adult data that the long pauses in chest compressions that
are required for stacked shocks lower resuscitation success rates, and the initial
shock success rate is relatively high with biphasic defibrillation. No changes are
recommended in pad/paddle size or position.
Although the safety of AEDs in infants <1 year of age is unknown, case reports have
documented successful defibrillations in infants. A manual defibrillator or an AED
with paediatric attenuation capabilities is preferred for use in infants and small
children.
Emergency medications for arrhythmias
The literature on emergency drug treatment of arrhythmias was reviewed and the only
change was the addition of procainamide as therapy for refractory supraventricular
tachycardia.
Management of shock
The evidence reviewed was related to several key questions regarding the management
of shock in children. There is ongoing uncertainty about the indications for using
colloid versus crystalloid in resuscitation from shock. Data from a large adult trial
suggest that effectiveness of normal saline (isotonic crystalloid) is equivalent to
albumin, although subgroup analysis suggested harm associated with the use of albumin
in patients with traumatic brain injury. There were insufficient data to change the
2005 recommendations.
The optimal timing for tracheal intubation of children in shock remains unclear, although
reports in children and adults with septic shock suggest that early intubation (before
signs of respiratory failure develop) combined with a protocol-driven management approach
may be beneficial. When children in septic shock were treated with a protocol that
included therapy directed to normalizing central venous oxygen saturation, patient
outcome appeared to improve.
Administering stress-dose corticosteroids in septic shock remains controversial, with
recent trials in adults failing to show a beneficial effect.
Performing rapid sequence intubation of a child with shock can result in acute cardiovascular
collapse. Etomidate typically causes less haemodynamic compromise than other induction
drugs and is therefore often used in this setting. However, data suggest that the
use of this drug in children and adults with septic shock is associated with increased
mortality that may be secondary to the inhibitory effects of etomidate on corticosteroid
synthesis.
Medications for cardiac arrest and bradycardia
The literature on medications used during cardiac arrest and bradycardia was reviewed
and updated, but no new recommendations were made. It was again emphasised that calcium
and sodium bicarbonate should not be routinely used in paediatric cardiac arrest (i.e.,
they should not be used without specific indications).
Extracorporeal cardiac life support
There is increasing evidence that extracorporeal cardiac life support (ECLS) can act
as a bridge to maintain oxygenation and circulation in selected infants and children
who are transplant candidates or who have a self-limited or treatable illness. ECLS
can only be used if the cardiac arrest occurs in a monitored environment with protocols
and personnel for its rapid initiation.
Post-cardiac arrest care
The literature on the benefit of hypothermia for patients who remain comatose after
resuscitation from cardiac arrest was reviewed. There is clear benefit for adult patients
who remain comatose after VF arrest, but the evidence is not as strong for infants
and young children whose arrest is most commonly asphyxial.
Some patients with sudden death in whom an obvious cause of death is not found have
a genetic abnormality of ionic channels, which presumably leads to fatal arrhythmia.
Because this is an inherited abnormality, family members might be affected, but special
tests are required for detection of this inherited genetic defect.
Special situations
New topics introduced include resuscitation of infants and children with certain congenital
cardiac abnormalities, namely single ventricle following stage I procedure and following
the Fontan or bidirectional Glenn procedures, as well as resuscitation of infants
and children with cardiac arrest and pulmonary hypertension.
Prognosis and decision to terminate CPR
The literature on this important topic was reviewed and the task force concluded that
there is insufficient evidence to allow a reliable prediction of success or failure
to achieve ROSC or survival from cardiac arrest in infants and children.
Neonatal resuscitation
Since publication of the 2005 Guidelines several controversial neonatal resuscitation
issues have been identified. The literature was researched and a consensus was reached
on the assessment of oxygenation and role of supplementary oxygen, peripartum management
of meconium, ventilation strategies, devices to confirm placement of an advanced airway
(e.g., tracheal tube or LMA), medications, maintenance of body temperature, post-cardiac
arrest care, and considerations for withholding and discontinuing resuscitation. Educational
techniques for teaching, assessing, and maintaining resuscitation knowledge and skills
and personnel needed at cesarean sections were also debated. The following are the
major new recommendations:
•
Progression to the next step after the initial evaluation is now directed by the simultaneous
assessment of 2 vital characteristics, heart rate and respirations. The use of a third
assessment—that of color is now replaced by oximetry assessment of oxyhaemoglobin
saturation.
•
For babies born at term, it is best to begin resuscitation with air rather than 100%
oxygen.
•
Administration of supplementary oxygen should be regulated by blending oxygen and
air and the amount delivered to be guided by oximetry.
•
The available evidence does not support or refute the routine tracheal suctioning
of infants born through meconium-stained amniotic fluid, even when the infant is depressed.
•
The compression–ventilation ratio should remain at 3:1 for neonates unless arrest
is known to be of cardiac aetiology, in which case a higher ratio should be considered.
•
Infants born at term or near term with evolving moderate to severe hypoxic-ischaemic
encephalopathy should be offered therapeutic hypothermia, which should be initiated
and conducted under clearly-defined protocols with treatment in neonatal intensive
care facilities and the capabilities for multidisciplinary care and follow-up.
•
It is appropriate to consider discontinuance of resuscitation if there has been no
detectable heart rate for 10 min. The decision to continue resuscitation efforts beyond
10 min of no heart rate is often complex and may be influenced by many factors such
as the presumed aetiology of the arrest, the gestation of the baby, the presence or
absence of complications.
•
Cord clamping should be delayed for at least 1 min in babies who do not require resuscitation.
Evidence is insufficient to recommend a time for clamping for those who require resuscitation.
Education, implementation, and teams
The Education, Implementation, and Teams Task Force reviewed 5 major topics: (1) education,
(2) risks and effects on the rescuer of CPR training and actual CPR performance, (3)
rescuer willingness to respond, (4) implementation and teams, and (5) ethics and outcomes.
The key 2010 recommendations related to EIT include
•
Efforts to implement new resuscitation guidelines are likely to be more successful
if a carefully planned, multifaceted implementation strategy is used. Education, while
essential, is only one element of a comprehensive implementation strategy.
•
All courses should be evaluated to ensure that they reliably achieve the program objectives.
Training should aim to ensure that learners acquire and retain the skills and knowledge
that will enable them to act correctly in an actual cardiac arrest.
•
BLS and ALS knowledge and skills can deteriorate in as few as 3–6 months after training.
Frequent assessments and, when needed, refresher training is recommended to maintain
resuscitation knowledge and skills.
•
Short video/computer self-instruction courses, with minimal or no instructor coaching,
combined with hands-on practice can be considered as an effective alternative to instructor-led
BLS (CPR and AED) courses.
•
Laypersons and healthcare providers should be trained to start CPR with chest compressions
for adult victims of cardiac arrest. If they are trained to do so, they should also
perform ventilations. Performing chest compressions alone is reasonable for trained
rescuers if they are incapable of delivering airway and breathing maneuvers to cardiac
arrest victims.
•
AED use should not be restricted to trained personnel. Allowing the use of AEDs by
persons without prior formal training can be beneficial and may be lifesaving. Because
even brief training improves performance (e.g., speed of use, correct pad placement),
it is recommended that training in the use of AEDs be provided.
•
CPR prompt or feedback devices improve CPR skills acquisition and retention and may
be considered during CPR training for laypeople and healthcare professionals. These
devices may be considered for clinical use as part of an overall strategy to improve
the quality of CPR.
•
It is reasonable to wear personal protective equipment (e.g., gloves) when performing
CPR. CPR should not be delayed or withheld if personal protective equipment is not
available unless there is a clear risk to the rescuer.
•
Manual chest compressions should not continue during delivery of a shock because safety
has not been established.
Education
Effective and efficient resuscitation education is one of the essential elements in
the translation of guidelines into clinical practice. Educational interventions need
to be population-specific (e.g., lay rescuers, healthcare providers) and evaluated
to ensure that they achieve the desired educational outcomes—not just at the end of
the course but also during actual resuscitation events. Retention of knowledge and
skills should be confirmed through assessment rather than assumption that they persist
for preestablished time intervals.
Populations
This section includes who should be trained and how they should prepare for training.
There is insufficient evidence to support or refute the use of training interventions
that focus on high-risk populations. Training with social support reduces anxiety
in patients and family members, improves emotional adjustment, and increases feelings
of empowerment.
ALS courses should incorporate precourse preparation including, but not limited to,
use of computer-assisted learning tutorials, written self-instruction materials, video-based
learning, textbook reading, and pretests. Any method of precourse preparation aimed
at improving knowledge and skills or reducing instructor-to-learner face-to-face time
should be formally assessed to ensure equivalent or improved learning outcomes compared
with standard instructor-led courses.
Instructional methods
There are multiple methods for delivering course content. This section examines specific
instructional methods and strategies that may have an impact on course outcomes. Short
video/computer self-instruction (with minimal or no instructor coaching) that includes
synchronous hands-on practice in BLS can be considered as an effective alternative
to instructor-led courses.
AED use should not be restricted to trained personnel. Allowing the use of AEDs by
persons without prior formal training can be beneficial and may be lifesaving. Because
even brief training improves performance (e.g., speed of use, correct pad placement),
it is recommended that training in the use of AEDs be provided. Laypersons can serve
as AED instructors. Short video/computer self-instruction (with minimal or no instructor
coaching) that includes synchronous hands-on practice in AED use may be considered
as an effective alternative to instructor-led AED courses.
CPR prompt/feedback devices may be considered during CPR training for laypersons and
healthcare providers. CPR prompt/feedback devices may be considered for clinical use
as part of an overall strategy to improve the quality of CPR. Instructors and rescuers
should be made aware that a compressible support surface (e.g., mattress) may cause
a feedback device to overestimate depth of compression.
Specific teamwork training, including leadership skills, should be included in ALS
courses. There is insufficient evidence to recommend any specific training intervention,
compared with traditional lecture/practice sessions, to improve learning, retention,
and use of ALS skills.
There is insufficient evidence to recommend teaching a specific technique to optimise
complete chest recoil during actual CPR.
There is insufficient evidence to support or refute the use of more realistic techniques
(e.g., high-fidelity manikins, in situ training) to improve outcomes (e.g., skills
performance on a manikin, skills performance in a real arrest, willingness to perform)
when compared with standard training (e.g., low-fidelity manikins, education center)
in BLS and ALS courses.
Course format and duration
Resuscitation training courses vary widely in their duration and delivery of content.
It is reasonable to consider shortening the duration of traditional instructor-led
BLS courses. Brief reassessment (e.g., at 6 months) should be considered to improve
skills and retention. The optimal duration of an instructor-led BLS course has not
been determined. New course formats should be assessed to ensure that they achieve
their objectives. There is insufficient evidence to support or refute alternative
ALS course scheduling formats compared with the traditional 2-day provider course
format.
Retraining intervals
It is recognised that knowledge and skills retention decline within weeks after initial
resuscitation training. Refresher training is invariably required to maintain knowledge
and skills; however, the optimal frequency for refresher training is unclear. For
BLS providers (laypersons and healthcare providers), skills assessment and, if required,
a skills refresher should be undertaken more often than the current commonly recommended
training interval of 12–24 months. For ALS providers, there should be more frequent
assessment of skills performance or refresher training or both than is currently recommended
in established ALS programs. There is insufficient evidence to recommend an optimal
interval and form of assessment or refresher training.
Assessment
A written test in an ALS course should not be used as a substitute for demonstration
of clinical skills performance. Summative assessment at the end of ALS training should
be considered as a strategy to improve learning outcomes. There is insufficient evidence
to recommend an optimal method of assessment during life support training.
Risks and effects on the rescuer of CPR training and actual CPR performance
The safety of rescuers is essential during training and actual CPR performance.
Physical effects
CPR training and actual performance is safe in most circumstances. Learners and rescuers
should consider personal and environmental risks before starting CPR. Learners undertaking
CPR training should be advised of the nature and extent of the physical activity required
during the training program. Learners who develop significant symptoms (e.g., chest
pain, severe shortness of breath) during CPR should be advised to stop. Rescuers who
develop significant symptoms during actual CPR should consider stopping CPR.
Rescuer fatigue
When performing chest compressions, if feasible, it is reasonable to consider changing
rescuers after about 2 min to prevent rescuer fatigue (demonstrated by deterioration
in chest compression quality, in particular, depth of compressions). The change of
rescuers performing chest compressions should be done with minimal interruption in
compressions.
Risks during defibrillation attempts
The risks associated with defibrillation are less than previously thought. There is
insufficient evidence that it is safe for the rescuer to continue manual chest compressions
during shock delivery for VF (defibrillation). It is reasonable for rescuers to wear
gloves when performing CPR and attempting defibrillation (manual or AED), but resuscitation
should not be delayed or withheld if gloves are not available. There is insufficient
evidence to make a recommendation regarding the safety of physical contact with a
patient during ICD discharge. There is insufficient evidence to make a recommendation
about the best method for a rescuer to avoid receiving shocks from an ICD discharge
during CPR. Although there are no reports of harm to rescuers, there is insufficient
evidence to make a recommendation regarding the safety of defibrillation in wet environments.
Psychological effects
There are few reports of psychological harm to rescuers after they are involved in
a resuscitation attempt. There is insufficient evidence to support or refute any recommendation
on minimising the incidence of psychological harm to rescuers.
Disease transmission
The risk of disease transmission during training and actual CPR performance is very
low. Rescuers should take appropriate safety precautions, especially if a victim is
known to have a serious infection (e.g., human immunodeficiency virus [HIV], tuberculosis,
hepatitis B virus, or severe acute respiratory syndrome [SARS]).
Rescuer willingness to respond
Increasing the willingness of individuals to respond to a cardiac arrest with early
recognition, calling for help, and starting CPR is essential to improve survival rates.
To increase willingness to perform CPR, laypersons should receive training in CPR
that includes recognition of gasping or abnormal breathing as a sign of adult cardiac
arrest when other signs of life are absent. Laypersons should be trained to start
resuscitation with chest compressions in adult and paediatric victims. If unwilling
or unable to perform ventilations, rescuers should be instructed to continue compression-only
CPR. EMS dispatchers should provide chest compression-only CPR instructions to callers
who report adult cardiac arrest and these instructions should include recognition
of gasping and abnormal breathing (see Part 5: Adult Basic Life Support, for further
information).
Implementation and teams
The best scientific evidence for resuscitation interventions will have little impact
on patient outcomes if it is not effectively translated into clinical practice. Successful
implementation is dependent on effective educational strategies to ensure that resuscitation
providers have the necessary knowledge and skills in combination with the necessary
infrastructure and resources. Education itself is only one strategy for implementing
changes.
Implementation strategies
Institutions or communities planning to implement complex guidelines, such as therapeutic
hypothermia, should consider using a comprehensive, multifaceted approach, including
clinical champions; a consensus-building process; multidisciplinary involvement; written
protocols; detailed process description; practical logistic support; multimodality,
multilevel education; and rapid cycle improvement methods.
Individual and team factors
Individual and team factors affect performance during resuscitation attempts. It is
reasonable to use cognitive aids (e.g., checklists) during resuscitation, provided
that their use does not delay the start of resuscitative efforts. Aids should be validated
using simulation or patient trials both before and after implementation to guide rapid
cycle improvement. It is reasonable to recommend the use of briefings and debriefings
during both learning and actual clinical activities.
There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against physicians versus nonphysician
providers of ALS during prehospital CPR.
System factors
Implementation of AED programs in public settings should be based on the characteristics
of published reports of successful programs in similar settings. Home AED use for
high-risk individuals who do not have an ICD has not been shown to change overall
survival rates.
Because population (e.g., rates of witnessed arrest) and program (e.g., response time)
characteristics affect survival, when implementing an AED program, community and program
leaders should consider factors such as location, development of a team with responsibility
for monitoring and maintaining the devices, training and retraining programs for those
who are likely to use the AED, coordination with the local EMS agency, and identification
of a group of paid or volunteer individuals who are committed to providing CPR and
using the AED for victims of arrest.
Although extrapolation from randomised and observational studies of systems of care
for other acute time-sensitive conditions (trauma, STEMI, stroke) suggests that specialised
cardiac arrest centers and systems of care may be effective, there is insufficient
direct evidence to recommend for or against their use. There is insufficient evidence
to make recommendations supporting or refuting the effectiveness of specific performance
measurement interventions to improve processes of care and clinical outcomes in resuscitation
systems.
There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against paediatric or adult basic
or advanced level life support training programs in low-income countries. However,
there is evidence that emergency medical training programs in neonatal and trauma
resuscitation should be considered in these countries. When delivering programs in
low-income countries, consideration should be given to local adaptation of training,
use of existing and sustainable resources for both care and training, and development
of a dedicated local infrastructure.
Recognition and prevention
Patients who have cardiac arrest often have unrecognised or untreated warning signs.
This section describes strategies to predict, recognise, and prevent cardiorespiratory
arrest, including the role of education.
Children and young adults presenting with characteristic symptoms of arrhythmic syncope
should be assessed by a cardiology specialist. The assessment should include an ECG
and in most cases an echocardiogram and exercise test. Characteristics of arrhythmic
syncope include syncope in the supine position, during or after exercise, with no
or only brief prodromal symptoms, repetitive episodes, or in persons with a family
history of sudden death. In addition, nonpleuritic chest pain, palpitations associated
with syncope, seizures (when resistant to treatment, occurring at night, or precipitated
by exercise, syncope, or loud noise), and drowning by a competent swimmer should raise
suspicion of increased risk. Systematic evaluation in a clinic specialising in the
care of those at risk for sudden cardiac death is recommended in family members of
young victims of sudden cardiac death or those with a known cardiac disorder resulting
in an increased risk of sudden cardiac death.
In adults admitted to the hospital, there is insufficient evidence to support or refute
the use of early warning systems/RRT systems or MET systems (compared with no such
systems) to reduce cardiac and respiratory arrests and hospital mortality. However,
it is reasonable for hospitals to provide a system of care that includes (1) staff
education about the signs of patient deterioration, (2) appropriate and regular monitoring
of the patient's vital signs, (3) clear guidance (e.g., via calling criteria or early
warning scores) to assist staff in early detection of patient deterioration, (4) a
clear, uniform system to call for assistance, and (5) a clinical response to calls
for assistance. There is insufficient evidence to identify the best methods for delivery
of these components and, based on current evidence, this should be based on local
circumstances.
Hospitals should use a system validated for their specific patient population to identify
individuals at increased risk of serious clinical deterioration, respiratory arrest,
or cardiac arrest, both on admission and during hospital stay. There is insufficient
evidence to identify specific educational strategies that improve outcomes (e.g.,
early recognition and rescue of the deteriorating patient at risk of cardiac/respiratory
arrest). Educational efforts have a positive impact on knowledge, skills, and attitudes/confidence
and increase the frequency of activation of a response and should therefore be considered.
Ethics and outcomes
The decision to start, continue, and terminate resuscitative efforts is based on the
balance of the risks, benefits, and burdens these interventions place on patients,
family members, and healthcare providers. There are circumstances where resuscitation
is inappropriate and should not be provided. These include when there is clear evidence
that to start resuscitation would be futile or against the expressed wishes of the
patient. Systems should be established to communicate these prospective decisions,
and simple algorithms should be developed to assist rescuers in limiting the burden
of unnecessary, potentially painful treatments.
Decisions before cardiac arrest
Standardised orders for limitations on life-sustaining treatments (e.g., do not attempt
resuscitation [DNAR], physician orders for life-sustaining treatment [POLST]) should
be considered to decrease the incidence of futile resuscitation attempts and to ensure
that the adult patient's wishes are honored. Instructions should be specific, detailed,
transferable across healthcare settings, and easily understood. Processes, protocols,
and systems should be developed that fit within local cultural norms and legal limitations
to allow providers to honor patient wishes regarding resuscitative efforts.
Termination-of-resuscitation rules
Termination-of-resuscitation rules such as the “BLS termination of resuscitation rule”
have been prospectively validated in the out-of-hospital setting for use by paramedics
and are recommended to guide termination of out-of-hospital CPR in adults. Other rules
for various provider levels, including in-hospital providers, may be helpful to reduce
variability in decision making; however, rules should be prospectively validated before
implementation.
Quality of life
Part of the decision-making process in deciding for or against the decision to initiate
resuscitation is the likelihood of success of the resuscitation attempt and the quality
of life that can be expected after discharge from the hospital.
Resuscitation after cardiac arrest produces a good quality of life in most survivors.
There is little evidence to suggest that resuscitation leads to a large number of
survivors with an unacceptable quality of life. Survivors may experience postarrest
problems, including anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress, and difficulties with
cognitive function. Clinicians should be aware of these potential problems, screen
for them, and, if found, treat them. Interventional resuscitation studies should be
encouraged to include a follow-up evaluation (ideally at least 6 months after the
event) that assesses general health-related quality of life with a validated instrument,
affective disorder (anxiety and depression), posttraumatic stress disorder, and cognitive
function.
Future directions
The science of resuscitation is evolving rapidly. It will not be in the best interests
of patients if we wait 5 or more years to inform healthcare professionals of therapeutic
advances in this field. ILCOR members will continue to review new science and, when
necessary, publish interim advisory statements to update treatment guidelines so that
resuscitation practitioners may provide state-of-the-art treatment. Existing gaps
in knowledge will be closed only by continuing high-quality research into all facets
of CPR.