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      The environment as a driver of immune and endocrine responses in dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus)

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          Abstract

          Immune and endocrine responses play a critical role in allowing animals to adjust to environmental perturbations. We measured immune and endocrine related markers in multiple samples from individuals from two managed-care care dolphin groups (n = 82 samples from 17 dolphins and single samples collected from two wild dolphin populations: Indian River Lagoon, (IRL) FL (n = 26); and Charleston, (CHS) SC (n = 19). The immune systems of wild dolphins were more upregulated than those of managed-care-dolphins as shown by higher concentrations of IgG and increases in lysozyme, NK cell function, pathogen antibody titers and leukocyte cytokine transcript levels. Collectively, managed-care care dolphins had significantly lower levels of transcripts encoding pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF, anti-viral MX1 and INFα and regulatory IL-10. IL-2Rα and CD69, markers of lymphocyte activation, were both lower in managed-care care dolphins. IL-4, a cytokine associated with T H2 activity, was lower in managed-care care dolphins compared to the free-ranging dolphins. Differences in immune parameters appear to reflect the environmental conditions under which these four dolphin populations live which vary widely in temperature, nutrition, veterinary care, pathogen/contaminant exposures, etc. Many of the differences found were consistent with reduced pathogenic antigenic stimulation in managed-care care dolphins compared to wild dolphins. Managed-care care dolphins had relatively low T H2 lymphocyte activity and fewer circulating eosinophils compared to wild dolphins. Both of these immunologic parameters are associated with exposure to helminth parasites which is uncommon in managed-care care dolphins. Less consistent trends were observed in a suite of hormones but significant differences were found for cortisol, ACTH, total T 4, free T 3, and epinephrine. While the underlying mechanisms are likely multiple and complex, the marked differences observed in the immune and endocrine systems of wild and managed-care care dolphins appear to be shaped by their environment.

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          Most cited references63

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          Physiological and molecular basis of thyroid hormone action.

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          Thyroid hormones (THs) play critical roles in the differentiation, growth, metabolism, and physiological function of virtually all tissues. TH binds to receptors that are ligand-regulatable transcription factors belonging to the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily. Tremendous progress has been made recently in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that underlie TH action. In this review, we present the major advances in our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of TH action and their implications for TH action in specific tissues, resistance to thyroid hormone syndrome, and genetically engineered mouse models.
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            Marine mammals as sentinel species for oceans and human health.

            The long-term consequences of climate change and potential environmental degradation are likely to include aspects of disease emergence in marine plants and animals. In turn, these emerging diseases may have epizootic potential, zoonotic implications, and a complex pathogenesis involving other cofactors such as anthropogenic contaminant burden, genetics, and immunologic dysfunction. The concept of marine sentinel organisms provides one approach to evaluating aquatic ecosystem health. Such sentinels are barometers for current or potential negative impacts on individual- and population-level animal health. In turn, using marine sentinels permits better characterization and management of impacts that ultimately affect animal and human health associated with the oceans. Marine mammals are prime sentinel species because many species have long life spans, are long-term coastal residents, feed at a high trophic level, and have unique fat stores that can serve as depots for anthropogenic toxins. Marine mammals may be exposed to environmental stressors such as chemical pollutants, harmful algal biotoxins, and emerging or resurging pathogens. Since many marine mammal species share the coastal environment with humans and consume the same food, they also may serve as effective sentinels for public health problems. Finally, marine mammals are charismatic megafauna that typically stimulate an exaggerated human behavioral response and are thus more likely to be observed.
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              Elaborate interactions between the immune and nervous systems.

              The immune system and the nervous system maintain extensive communication, including 'hardwiring' of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves to lymphoid organs. Neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine, norepinephrine, vasoactive intestinal peptide, substance P and histamine modulate immune activity. Neuroendocrine hormones such as corticotropin-releasing factor, leptin and alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone regulate cytokine balance. The immune system modulates brain activity, including body temperature, sleep and feeding behavior. Molecules such as the major histocompatibility complex not only direct T cells to immunogenic molecules held in its cleft but also modulate development of neuronal connections. Neurobiologists and immunologists are exploring common ideas like the synapse to understand properties such as memory that are shared in these two systems.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                3 May 2017
                2017
                : 12
                : 5
                : e0176202
                Affiliations
                [1 ]National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Center for Coastal Environmental Health & Biomolecular Research, Charleston, SC, United States of America
                [2 ]Department of Public Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States of America
                [3 ]Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution at Florida Atlantic University, Ft. Pierce, FL, United States of America
                [4 ]Marine Mammal Foundation, San Diego, CA, United States of America
                [5 ]Georgia Aquarium, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
                [6 ]Division of Comparative Pathology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States of America
                [7 ]Mystic Aquarium, a division of Sea Research Foundation, Mystic, CT, United States of America
                [8 ]University of California, Davis, United States of America
                [9 ]Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate Program in Environmental Toxicology, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States of America
                [10 ]Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States of America
                Glasgow Caledonian University, UNITED KINGDOM
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: We confirmed that our Georgia Aquarium and Mystic Aquarium commercial affiliation does not alter our adherence to all PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.

                • Conceptualization: PAF GDB JSR DSH.

                • Data curation: AMS DSH CDC PAF.

                • Formal analysis: AMS JSR.

                • Funding acquisition: PAF GBD DSH.

                • Investigation: PAF DSH GDB TAR JLS CDR NW AMS JSR.

                • Methodology: PAF DSH GDB JSR.

                • Project administration: PAF GDB DSH.

                • Resources: PAF GDB DSH TAR CDC NW CDR JLS.

                • Software: AMS.

                • Supervision: PAF.

                • Validation: PAF GDB JSR DSH CDC.

                • Visualization: PAF JSR AMS.

                • Writing – original draft: PAF JSR.

                • Writing – review & editing: PAF JSR DSH CDC JLS GDB AMS NW TAR CDR.

                Article
                PONE-D-16-41388
                10.1371/journal.pone.0176202
                5415355
                28467830
                85f27dc7-bb4a-47f4-97e3-ad9b7569bda0

                This is an open access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.

                History
                : 17 October 2016
                : 6 April 2017
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 5, Pages: 19
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000006, Office of Naval Research;
                Award ID: N0001411P20081
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000006, Office of Naval Research;
                Award ID: N00014110541
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000006, Office of Naval Research;
                Award ID: N00014-11-1-0436
                Award Recipient :
                We include the funding source Office of Naval Research grant number N00014-11-1-0436 (DSH). We also include commercial affiliations, Georgia Aquarium and Mystic Aquarium, and a statement on the role of the funders as follows: The funding organizations, Georgia Aquarium and Mystic Aquarium, provided support in the form of salaries for authors [GDB, TAR] and did not play an additional role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The specific roles of these authors are articulated in the ‘author contributions’ section.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Animals
                Vertebrates
                Amniotes
                Mammals
                Marine Mammals
                Dolphins
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Marine Biology
                Marine Mammals
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                Earth Sciences
                Marine and Aquatic Sciences
                Marine Biology
                Marine Mammals
                Dolphins
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                Organisms
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                Amniotes
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                Developmental Biology
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                Biology and Life Sciences
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