Digitization has advanced considerably in the last decade. Devices that a few years
ago would have been be considered close to science fiction, not to mention economically
unattainable, are currently at our disposal, increasing the means through which we
can relate with the world. As expected, the ways in which humans interact and use
these technologies have attracted considerable attention in the scientific community,
which has led to innovations in technology, as well as theories related to changes
in technology adoption according to jurisdiction (Ricardo-Barreto et al.), behavior
(Mangen and Velay, 2010; Marco and Tormo-Irun), and in the human brain itself (Greenfield,
2015; Lemus-Zúñiga et al., 2015). These developments take place in the context of
a rapidly aging society, and where many disciplines have struggled to address the
interaction of technology with the aging process in terms of human development, cognition,
social support, and emotional skills (Charness and Boot, 2009; Mangen, 2016; Kuzmičová
et al., 2018).
Technology, and more precisely, digitization, makes our lives easier, and it may also
be transforming our mental processes. If so, it seems imperative to examine the impact
of its use on our cognition. Digitization can obviously lead to certain skills getting
worse, but it also leads to an improvement of other abilities (Hu et al., 2017; Wilmer
et al., 2017; Uncapher and Wagner, 2018). These improvements may not be measured properly
in traditional IQ assessment tools. In this way, recently there has been talk of a
slowdown or reversal in several countries of the well-known Flynn effect on the growth
of the Intellectual Quotient. Some Researchers predict a change arising from the cognitive
demands of the use of new devices, as well as changes in such social domains as family,
education and work (Bratsberg and Rogeberg, 2018; Flynn and Shayer, 2018; Oliveira
et al.).
One variable of interest in reflecting our cognitive architecture is reading and,
more precisely, it seems to be a key skill for full digital citizenship. Therefore,
internet-based technologies have been of interest for the scientific community, as
they make research in this field more accessible (Dufau et al., 2015; Moret-Tatay
et al., 2018). Reading is a complex process that is based on the efficiency of lexical
and sub-lexical linguistic skills such as orthographic, phonological, semantic, morphological
and syntactic knowledge, to decode and understand a text (Wolf and Stoodley, 2008).
This process is even more complex when variables such as the type of reading resource
are considered. A survey conducted almost a decade ago (Rideout et al., 2010), suggested
that those who read in print texts were less likely to perform multiple tasks than
when they read digitally; more precisely, reading digitally appeared to encourage
divided attention. Likewise, the printed texts allow readers to see and feel the spatial
extent and physical dimensions of the text, and the material of the article provides
fixed physical, tactile and spatially temporal keys throughout the reading (Mangen,
2010). Despite the emerging preference for digital texts (Singer and Alexander, 2017)
the literature seems not to be conclusive on its impact on cognition. For example,
there are certain exceptions in relation to these findings—Schneps et al. (2019) found
that groups of readers with dyslexia showed a more effective and compressive reading
in digital texts.
Another case where digitization has a clear impact on the cognition is that of human
navigation. In real-world situations, such as navigating a city, there may be more
than one route to a destination. The more options to consider, the greater demands
placed on the brain regions needed to retrieve the network of possible paths and select
the optimal route. This process might be affected by the popular use of positioning
systems (such as GPS). The spatial navigation carried out by human beings is fundamental
to our independence. Therefore, it is not surprising that deficits in spatial navigation
can be among the first symptoms of dementia (Gazova et al., 2012). Studies in the
field show that this is related to cognitive aspects such as working memory and attention,
and that the skill is plastic—a brief navigation training changes a person's brain
tissue and improves the way in which the modified tissue communicates with other areas
of the brain involved in navigation. According to the literature (Boccia et al., 2014),
when navigating through the environment, people can use two basic navigation strategies
associated with different internal representations of the space. Self-centered navigation
is a body-centered strategy that uses distances and indications to or from individual
reference points with respect to the subject's body position. Allocentric navigation
is a world-centered strategy that uses information about distances and angles between
different locations in the environment, regardless of the subject's position, and
is the one that experiences the greatest age-related decline. This issue could be
a challenge for futures generations if positioning systems really have an impact in
our sense of orientation.
It is also important to understand the barriers to and facilitators of (e.g., technology-related
anxiety and self-efficacy) the adoption of emerging technologies, across the lifespan
(Moret-Tatay et al., 2019). Some of these factors are of specific interest in the
field of aging (Charness et al.; e.g., Rauschnabel et al., 2015), pointed out that
the openness trait might predict the use of ICT. According to Bernabé-Valero et al.,
some other variables may play a crucial role in adoption—in this study, it was found
that intellectual humility moderates the adoption process of mobiles and computers.
Finally, technology aims to be accessible for everyone. This is one of the biggest
challenges in our society—not only for the older population, but also for other groups,
such as people with intellectual disabilities. The needs of this group are related
to their condition (Durbin et al., 2017), where psychological or functional impairments
needs should be addressed. One opportunity in the field is the use of e-health interventions
(Constant et al., 2018). However, this issue becomes even more complex when combined
with aging. According to Vázquez et al., after a systematic review in the topic, literature
underscores the need to guarantee equity in e-health adoption for this population.
As expected, the ways in which humans interact with and use these technologies has
attracted considerable attention in the scientific community, which has led to innovations
in digital environments, as well as theories related to changes in behavior and in
the human brain itself. The current Research Topic aimed to integrate some of the
key empirical evidence that has emerged regarding the association between digitization,
society and cognition. Most of the research studies included are concerned with the
growing presence of digitization in our culture, domains in which it may enhance cognitive
skills, and domains in which the scientific literature is not developed enough to
substantiate such claims. Future lines of research should aim to examine evidence
relating to both, as well as the consequences in such domains as human intelligence.
Even if this last objective is not straightforward, we expect this call can serve
as a basis, or at least a resource, for those conducting further research in this
area. Understanding the mind, in an integrative way, requires both theory and empirical
evidence that provide further knowledge regarding its organization and development,
including individual differences, and learning at different phases of development
or life span.
Author Contributions
CM-T and MM conceived of the presented idea and drafted the manuscript.
Conflict of Interest Statement
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial
or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.