Introduction
Dopamine receptor-mediated signaling in the mammalian striatum, which comprises two
functional subdivisions, i.e., the striosome and matrix compartments (Graybiel, 1990;
Gerfen, 1992), serves as a principal determinant of basal ganglia function (Graybiel,
2008; Kreitzer, 2009; Gerfen and Surmeier, 2011). Its deregulation underlies pathophysiology
and symptomatology of various basal ganglia disorders including Parkinson's disease
(PD) (Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011). Striatal dopamine deficiency is the principal
cause of motor symptoms in PD (Hornykiewicz, 2017). The administration of L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine
(L-DOPA), a dopamine prodrug that acts as the full agonist of both the dopamine D1-
and D2-type receptors (D1Rs and D2Rs), is the most effective and commonly used for
the treatment of PD (Hornykiewicz, 2017). However, long-term daily exposure to L-DOPA
often causes troublesome adverse effects, such as L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID)
(Jenner, 2008; Calabresi et al., 2010; Bastide et al., 2015; Goto, 2017). Because
of their longer half-lives and durations of action than those of L-DOPA, dopamine
receptor agonists are currently used as an effective therapy for PD, although they
primarily target D2Rs (Poewe et al., 2017). D1R-selective agonists (D1-agonists) have
long been considered potential therapies for PD (for review see, Jones-Tabah et al.,
2022). Like D2-agonists, D1-agonists improve motor deficits sufficiently in “rodent”
models of PD; however, therapeutic trials with D1-agonists have failed to identify
clinically applicable strategies because of their limited efficacy and the adverse
effects induced by specific ligands (Jones-Tabah et al., 2022). Supplementary Table
1 shows the representatives of D1-agonists used in clinical trials for PD. Thus, there
seems to be a species difference in the therapeutic efficacy of D1-agonists on motor
symptoms under PD conditions. This “Opinion” article introduces anatomical evidence
that, unlike in mice, a marked compartmental difference exists in the abundance of
D1Rs in the human striatum, with a pronounced enrichment of D1Rs in the striosome
compartment, but a relative paucity in the matrix compartment (Morigaki and Goto,
2015). The specificity of the striatal dopamine D1 system in humans is important when
considering the therapeutic effects of D1-agonists in patients with PD.
Striatal dopamine system in the functional anatomy of the basal ganglia
Dopamine receptors, which belong to a superfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors (Missale
et al., 1998), are categorized into two subclasses, D1Rs and D2Rs, respectively, based
on their ability to elicit and inhibit the adenylyl cyclase-mediated production of
3',5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) via the specific targeting of G-proteins
(Kebabian and Calne, 1979; Missale et al., 1998). Striatal dopamine/cAMP signaling
is integrated by medium spiny neurons (MSNs), which constitute more than 90% of the
neuronal types in the striatum (Kreitzer, 2009; Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011; Gerfen
and Surmeier, 2011; Goto, 2017). Striatal MSNs can be divided into two distinct subclasses
based on their efferent projections, which form the “direct” striatonigral and “indirect”
striatopallidal pathways, which mainly express D1Rs and D2Rs, respectively (Alexander
et al., 1986; Albin et al., 1989). Both direct and indirect pathway MSNs form fundamental
circuits in the basal ganglia, where D1Rs boost the excitability of striatonigral
MSNs, whereas D2Rs diminish the excitability of striatopallidal MSNs. Thus, the “classical”
direct-indirect pathway model (Figure 1A) suggests that the basal ganglia regulate
the release and inhibition of movements via the D1-direct and D2-indirect pathways,
respectively (Alexander et al., 1986; Albin et al., 1989).
Figure 1
Striatal dopamine D1 systems in the functional anatomy of the basal ganglia. (A) Direct-indirect
pathway model of the basal ganglia circuit (Alexander et al., 1986; Albin et al.,
1989). The direct-indirect pathway model suggests that striatal dopamine D1 receptor
(D1R)-expressing medium spiny neurons (MSNs) primarily form the direct pathway that
targets the globus pallidus internus (GPi)/entopeduncular nucleus (EP) and substantia
nigra pars reticulata (SNr). D2R-expressing MSNs form the indirect pathway that targets
the globus pallidus externa (GPe), which sends projections to the subthalamic nucleus
(STN). (B) In the three-pathway model of striatal efferent connectivity (Graybiel
et al., 2000; Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011), striosomal MSNs form the striosome-specific
pathway (striosomal pathway) that targets the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc),
which projects back to the entire striatum. Most MSNs that form the direct and indirect
pathways lie in the matrix compartment. Striosomal MSNs also communicate with adjacent
matrix MSNs via cholinergic interneurons (marked by Ach). The collaterals of the striosomal
projections in GPi/EP and GPe are not shown in this diagram. (C) Compartmental differences
in the abundance of D1Rs and responsiveness to D1R activation in mice (left) and humans
(right). In mice, D1Rs are abundant in both the striosome (S) and matrix (M) compartments
in the dorsal striatum (DS), with no apparent compartmental difference in abundance.
This is evident in the immunofluorescence image of a mouse striatal section stained
for D1Rs (Morigaki et al., 2017). Thus, no difference in the response to D1R-selective
agonists (D1-agonists) is apparent between the striosome and matrix compartments in
the mouse striatum. In humans, a marked compartmental difference exists in the abundance
of D1Rs in the neostriatum. This is evident in the immunofluorescence image of a caudate
nucleus (CN) section stained for D1Rs (Morigaki and Goto, 2015). Examples of the striosomes
are indicated by asterisks. Thus, in humans, D1-agonists act preferentially in the
striosomes that send the striosomal pathway, but not in the matrix compartment that
forms the direct pathway.
The human neostriatum (known in rodents as the dorsal striatum) comprises the striosome
(patch) and matrix compartments (Graybiel, 1990; Gerfen, 1992). Considering the striatal
compartments, Graybiel et al. (2000) proposed a three-pathway model of striatal efferent
connectivity (Figure 1B) (Graybiel et al., 2000; Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011), in
which striosomal MSNs form a striosome-specific pathway targeting the substantia nigra
pars compacta (SNc), with collaterals in the globus pallidus internus/entopeduncular
nucleus and globus pallidus externus. Subsequently, most MSNs that form the direct
and indirect pathways lie in the matrix compartment (Graybiel et al., 2000; Crittenden
and Graybiel, 2011), which comprises more than 80% of the striatum volume (Johnston
et al., 1990). The striosome compartment purportedly participates in the striatal
dopamine signaling homeostasis through its projections to dopamine-producing cells
in the SNc that project back to the entire striatum (Graybiel et al., 2000; Crittenden
and Graybiel, 2011). The striosome compartment also regulates the activity of adjacent
matrix MSNs via striatal interneurons (e.g., cholinergic interneurons) (Graybiel,
2008; Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011), which can regulate dopamine release (Threlfell
and Cragg, 2011) and balance the activity between the direct and indirect pathways
(Ding et al., 2011). Evidence also indicates that the striosome compartment mainly
has afferent connections to limbic-related circuits, while the matrix compartment
is related to associative and sensorimotor circuits (Gerfen, 1992; Graybiel, 2008;
Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011). Therefore, the advanced model of basal ganglia circuits
(Graybiel, 2008; Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011) suggests that the normal release of
individual movements largely depends on the activity balance between the direct and
indirect pathways arising from the matrix compartment, whereas the striosome compartment
participates in the limbic control of motor behaviors.
Specificity of the striatal dopamine D1 system in humans
As shown in the immunohistochemical studies on autopsied brains (Morigaki and Goto,
2015), D1Rs are differentially concentrated between the two striatal compartments
in the human neostriatum (Figure 1C). Densitometric analysis reveals that the D1R
density in striosomes is more than three times that in the matrix (Morigaki and Goto,
2015). However, no apparent compartmental difference in the abundance of D1Rs has
been found in the dorsal striatum of mice (Figure 1C) (Morigaki et al., 2017). Since
multiple neurochemical molecules immunohistochemically exhibit cross-species variations
in their compartmental enrichments (Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011), the species difference
in the compartmental abundance of D1Rs between humans and mice is not surprising and
may parallel the phylogenic evolution of cortico-basal ganglia circuits (Hamasaki
and Goto, 2019). However, the strategic localization of D1Rs in humans is crucial
to the interdependent striatal dopamine signal processing of the respective compartments.
This suggests that the striatal responsiveness to dopaminergic stimulation differs
between the striosome and matrix compartments. As striatal MSNs are almost equally
divided between D1R- and D2R-expressing MSNs (D1-MSNs and D2-MSNs) (Crittenden and
Graybiel, 2011), the immunohistochemical results indicate that, in the human neostriatum,
striosomal MSNs possess a greater abundance of D1R proteins than that in matrix MSNs.
The specificity of the striosome-matrix dopamine system in humans is implicated in
the clinical use of dopamine receptor agonists in the management of PD motor symptoms.
Therapeutic effects of D1-agonists differ between mice and humans under PD conditions
Core symptoms of de novo patients with PD are characterized by a paucity of movement
release during the execution of voluntary movements (Graybiel et al., 2000; Crittenden
and Graybiel, 2011). Since the three-pathway model suggests that the normal release
of individual movements depends on the activity balance between matrix-based direct
and indirect pathways (Graybiel et al., 2000; Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011), striatal
dopamine deficiency in the matrix compartment may represent the primary cause of these
hypokinetic motor symptoms. As shown in Figure 1C, D1Rs are abundantly found in both
the striosome and matrix compartments in the dorsal striatum of mice. However, the
human neostriatum exhibits a pronounced enrichment of D1Rs in the striosomes, but
a relative paucity of D1Rs in the matrix. This indicates that compared to striosomal
D1-MSNs, D1-direct pathway MSNs in the matrix compartment respond poorly to D1-agonist
exposure in humans. Therefore, the clinical use of D1-agonists has limited efficacy
in treating hypokinetic motor symptoms in PD. Moreover, in humans, D1Rs are heavily
enriched in the striosome compartment. This suggests that, when D1-agonists are systemically
administered, they act preferentially in the striosome compartment, which purportedly
participates in the limbic control of motor behaviors. Therefore, if a high dose of
D1-agonists is administered to obtain high-yield therapeutic efficacy, it may simultaneously
increase the potential risk of inducing LID, which is strongly linked to the over-activation
of striosomal MSNs (Graybiel et al., 2000; Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011). This hypothesis
conforms with evidence that D1-agonists tend to produce similar levels of dyskinesia
as the D1/D2 agonist L-DOPA (Jones-Tabah et al., 2022). Moreover, the administration
of D1-agonists may cause an undesired reduction in striatal dopamine content by activating
the striosomal D1-MSNs that send inhibitory projections to the dopaminergic cells
in the SNc (Graybiel et al., 2000; Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011). Therefore, a single
use of D1-agonists may not represent an ideal therapy for PD in a clinical setting,
although it may exert therapeutic effects on other clinical symptoms associated with
PD (e.g., “off period” dystonia), possibly due to the loss of striosomal D1 signaling
(Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011).
Conclusion and future directions
The activity balance of D1R-mediated signaling between the striosome and matrix compartments
serves as a key regulator of basal ganglia functions. An advanced model of the functional
anatomy of the basal ganglia (Graybiel et al., 2000; Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011)
suggests that striatal MSNs form three major efferent projection systems (Figure 1B),
wherein the D1-direct and D2-indirect pathways mainly arise from matrix MSNs, whereas
the striosome-specific pathway arises from striosomal MSNs. The immunohistochemical
results from mouse and human brains (Morigaki and Goto, 2015; Morigaki et al., 2017)
revealed a marked compartmental difference in D1R abundance in the human neostriatum,
unlike in the dorsal striatum of mice (Figure 1C). This anatomical evidence updates
our understanding of the functional anatomy of the basal ganglia and suggests that
D1R-mediated signals are mainly processed through striosome-based circuits in humans.
Recognizing the specificity of the striosome-matrix dopamine D1 system in humans contributes
to our understanding of the symptoms and therapies for movement disorders of basal
ganglia origin. The striatal compartment-specific responsiveness to D1R activation
suggests that D1-agonists preferentially act on striosomal D1-MSNs that form the striosomal
pathway, but not on matrix D1-MSNs that form the direct pathway. Hence, the author
has a negative opinion on the clinical development of a single use of D1-agonists
for the treatment of PD, in which hypokinetic motor symptoms primarily result from
dopamine deficiency in the matrix compartment. However, if D2-agonists are concurrently
administered, D1-agonists could be useful tool to treat hypokinetic motor symptoms
in patients with PD, as in the D1/D2 agonist L-DOPA therapy. D1/D2 dopamine receptor
synergism has been suggested to underlie the network-level changes in basal ganglia
activation (Capper-Loup et al., 2002). On one hand, the author posits the use of D1-agonists
as an effective therapy for the treatment of dystonias, because the loss of striosomal
dopamine signaling is considered a potential cause of dystonia symptoms (Goto et al.,
2005, 2013; Sato et al., 2008; Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011). Indeed, it was recently
found that dual dopaminergic modulation, which induces an increase in striatal D1-signals,
could exert a therapeutic effect on blepharospasm, a focal dystonia (Matsumoto et
al., 2022). In this context, it is also noteworthy that dystonia symptoms (e.g., blepharospasm)
frequently occur in patients with PD (Shetty et al., 2019). Additionally, D1-agonists
may provide a useful tool for the treatment of cognitive and behavioral disorders
that purportedly result from functional impairments of the associative and limbic
brain circuits (Graybiel, 2008: Amemori et al., 2011; Crittenden and Graybiel, 2011).
Understanding the specificity of the striosome-matrix dopamine D1 system in humans
is necessary to comprehend the functional pathology of basal ganglia disorders. Therefore,
the validity of the clinical development of dopaminergic modulators (e.g., D1-agonists)
must be determined for the treatment of basal ganglia disorders including PD. Finally,
the author hopes to develop in vivo brain imaging techniques that provide insight
into the functions of the striosome-matrix dopamine D1 system in the human striatum.
Author contributions
SG: conceptual design, execution, analysis, writing, and editing final version of
the manuscript.