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      Citrus Pomace Biomass as a Source of Pectin and Lignocellulose Fibers: From Waste to Upgraded Biocomposites for Mulching Applications

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          Abstract

          Citrus pomace derived from the industrial processing of juice and essential oils mostly consists of pectin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and simple sugars. In this work, citrus pomace waste from an agricultural company in South Italy was used as source of pectin. The extraction conditions of the polysaccharide were optimized using a suitable combination of time and a concentration of a mild organic solvent, such as acetic acid; thus recovering high M w pectin and bioactive molecules (flavonoids and polyphenols). The pectin was structurally (GPC, FTIR), morphologically (SEM), thermally (TGA/DTG), and mechanically characterized, while bioactive molecules were separated and the total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoids content (TFC) were evaluated. With the aim to develop novel biocomposite-based materials, the pectin extracted from citrus waste was reinforced with different amounts of lignocellulose fractions also recovered from citrus waste after polysaccharide extraction, according to a “zero waste” circular economy approach. The prepared biocomposites were morphologically and mechanically characterized to be used as biodegradable mulching systems for crop protection. Thus, the citrus waste biomass was recovered, fractionated into its main raw materials, and these were recombined to develop novel upgraded biocomposites for mulching applications, by means of a cost-effective and eco-sustainable approach.

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          Pectin structure and biosynthesis.

          D Mohnen (2008)
          Pectin is structurally and functionally the most complex polysaccharide in plant cell walls. Pectin has functions in plant growth, morphology, development, and plant defense and also serves as a gelling and stabilizing polymer in diverse food and specialty products and has positive effects on human health and multiple biomedical uses. Pectin is a family of galacturonic acid-rich polysaccharides including homogalacturonan, rhamnogalacturonan I, and the substituted galacturonans rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II) and xylogalacturonan (XGA). Pectin biosynthesis is estimated to require at least 67 transferases including glycosyl-, methyl-, and acetyltransferases. New developments in understanding pectin structure, function, and biosynthesis indicate that these polysaccharides have roles in both primary and secondary cell walls. Manipulation of pectin synthesis is expected to impact diverse plant agronomical properties including plant biomass characteristics important for biofuel production.
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            Thermal processing enhances the nutritional value of tomatoes by increasing total antioxidant activity.

            Veronica Dewanto, Xianzhong Wu, Kafui Adom … (2002)
            Processed fruits and vegetables have been long considered to have lower nutritional value than their fresh commodities due to the loss of vitamin C during processing. This research group found vitamin C in apples contributed < 0.4% of total antioxidant activity, indicating most of the activity comes from the natural combination of phytochemicals. This suggests that processed fruits and vegetables may retain their antioxidant activity despite the loss of vitamin C. Here it is shown that thermal processing elevated total antioxidant activity and bioaccessible lycopene content in tomatoes and produced no significant changes in the total phenolics and total flavonoids content, although loss of vitamin C was observed. The raw tomato had 0.76 +/- 0.03 micromol of vitamin C/g of tomato. After 2, 15, and 30 min of heating at 88 degrees C, the vitamin C content significantly dropped to 0.68 +/- 0.02, 0.64 +/- 0.01, and 0.54 +/- 0.02 micromol of vitamin C/g of tomato, respectively (p < 0.01). The raw tomato had 2.01 +/- 0.04 mg of trans-lycopene/g of tomato. After 2, 15, and 30 min of heating at 88 degrees C, the trans-lycopene content had increased to 3.11+/- 0.04, 5.45 +/- 0.02, and 5.32 +/- 0.05 mg of trans-lycopene/g of tomato (p < 0.01). The antioxidant activity of raw tomatoes was 4.13 +/- 0.36 micromol of vitamin C equiv/g of tomato. With heat treatment at 88 degrees C for 2, 15, and 30 min, the total antioxidant activity significantly increased to 5.29 +/- 0.26, 5.53 +/- 0.24, and 6.70 +/- 0.25 micromol of vitamin C equiv/g of tomato, respectively (p < 0.01). There were no significant changes in either total phenolics or total flavonoids. These findings indicate thermal processing enhanced the nutritional value of tomatoes by increasing the bioaccessible lycopene content and total antioxidant activity and are against the notion that processed fruits and vegetables have lower nutritional value than fresh produce. This information may have a significant impact on consumers' food selection by increasing their consumption of fruits and vegetables to reduce the risks of chronic diseases.
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              Rhamnogalacturonan II: structure and function of a borate cross-linked cell wall pectic polysaccharide.

              Malcolm A O'Neill, Tadashi Ishii, Peter Albersheim … (2004)
              Rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II) is a structurally complex pectic polysaccharide that was first identified in 1978 as a quantitatively minor component of suspension-cultured sycamore cell walls. Subsequent studies have shown that RG-II is present in the primary walls of angiosperms, gymnosperms, lycophytes, and pteridophytes and that its glycosyl sequence is conserved in all vascular plants examined to date. This is remarkable because RG-II is composed of at least 12 different glycosyl residues linked together by more than 20 different glycosidic linkages. However, only a few of the genes and proteins required for RG-II biosynthesis have been identified. The demonstration that RG-II exists in primary walls as a dimer that is covalently cross-linked by a borate diester was a major advance in our understanding of the structure and function of this pectic polysaccharide. Dimer formation results in the cross-linking of the two homogalacturonan chains upon which the RG-II molecules are constructed and is required for the formation of a three-dimensional pectic network in muro. This network contributes to the mechanical properties of the primary wall and is required for normal plant growth and development. Indeed, changes in wall properties that result from decreased borate cross-linking of pectin may lead to many of the symptoms associated with boron deficiency in plants.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Łukasz Klapiszewski: Role: Academic Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Polymers (Basel)
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Polymers (Basel)
                Journal ID (publisher-id): polymers
                Title: Polymers
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2073-4360
                Publication date (Electronic): 14 April 2021
                Publication date Collection: April 2021
                Volume: 13
                Issue: 8
                Electronic Location Identifier: 1280
                Affiliations
                Institute of Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials, National Research Council, Via Campi Flegrei 34, 80078 Pozzuoli, Italy; domenico.zannini@ 123456ipcb.cnr.it (D.Z.); giovanni.dalpoggetto@ 123456ipcb.cnr.it (G.D.P.); mario.malinconico@ 123456ipcb.cnr.it (M.M.); gabriella.santagata@ 123456ipcb.cnr.it (G.S.)
                Author notes
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8108-1102
                Article
                Publisher ID: polymers-13-01280
                DOI: 10.3390/polym13081280
                PMC ID: 8070950
                PubMed ID: 33919976
                SO-VID: d9cd845b-bb75-4ba6-8cd3-1819d30ae757
                Copyright © © 2021 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 24 March 2021
                Date accepted : 13 April 2021
                Categories
                Subject: Article

                Keywords: citrus pomace waste,pectin,circular economy approach,green extraction,biocomposites,mulching application
                Data availability:
                Keywords: citrus pomace waste, pectin, circular economy approach, green extraction, biocomposites, mulching application

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