In a recent study with potential wide-reaching influence, (Edsinger and Dölen, 2018)
tested, for the first time, the effect of 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)
in the cephalopod mollusk Octopus bimaculoides. In their main experiment (Experiment
2), the authors placed octopuses in the central compartment of a three-chambered arena
and allowed them to freely explore the lateral chambers, one containing an object
and the other containing a social stimulus (a familiar male conspecific), both isolated
through a perforated plastic container. All subjects first received a pre-trial to
establish a baseline for the social response toward the conspecific, and following
the administration of MDMA, they were given a post-trial with the same individual.
According to the authors, the results demonstrate that MDMA induces both quantitative
(i.e., longer intervals spent in the social stimulus chamber) and qualitative (i.e.,
different behaviors) acute prosocial responses in octopus. Here we highlight fundamental
flaws in the study, thus challenging the authors' conclusions.
Foremost, this experiment foregoes the standard procedure in establishing causal effects
in pharmacological studies. Specifically, the authors did not test a control group
in which a placebo was administered in between the two trials. In the absence of this
crucial control, the data from this experiment cannot be taken as indication that
the differences between pre-trials and post-trials are in fact caused by the drug.
The possibility of the current results being artifacts of repeated testing rather
than effects of MDMA is further substantiated when one takes into account the temporal
sequence of the two experiments reported in the publication. Three out of the four
octopuses tested in the MDMA experiment summarized above (Experiment 2) were previously
used as subjects in another test (Experiment 1), in which the same set-up was used
but no drug was administered. In this test the authors report that all octopuses were
presented with: (i) a female conspecific and a Chewbacca statue in the first trial,
and; (ii) the same male conspecific as used in Experiment 2 and a Stormtrooper in
the second trial. Thus, according to how the procedure is reported in the study, the
three octopuses in question (i.e., subjects 1, 4, and 7) would have received three
trials (trials 1 and 2 of Experiment 1, and pre-trial of Experiment 2) on one day,
and the post-trial of Experiment 2 on the following day (Figure 1; Table S4, Edsinger
and Dölen, 2018). If this was the case, then they were exposed to a novel female octopus
in the morning, and then to the same male octopus across three trials (two trials
in the afternoon of the same day, and one trial on the next day). As we will discuss
later however, this seems to not actually be correct: these three octopuses in reality
seem to have received only two trials (trials 1 and 2 of Experiment 1) before the
post-trial of Experiment 2. Nonetheless, what this means is that these three octopuses
were exposed to a novel female conspecific in the morning, another novel male octopus
in the afternoon of the same day, and the same male conspecific on the next day. With
this in mind, and because these three subjects account for a substantial fraction
of the sample (75%), the overall pattern of data can be interpreted in alternative
ways. For instance, a progressive extinction of the social response (perhaps due to
habituation) could account for: (i) the reduction in the time spent with the social
stimulus across the first trials, and; (ii) the subsequent increased response (dishabituation)
in the post-trial of Experiment 2, after a 24 h delay (Figure 1). Supporting this
view, previous independent studies showed that octopuses adjust their social response
(e.g., by increasing avoidance behaviors) following repeated interactions with conspecifics
(Cigliano, 1993; Tricarico et al., 2011). Alternatively, the repeated exposure to
conspecifics could have allowed octopuses to learn that the social stimuli did not
represent an actual threat (because they were constantly restrained in plastic cages),
thus triggering bolder interactions on the last trial (i.e., post-trial of Experiment
2). The latter alternative interpretation appears plausible when one takes into account
the solitary lifestyle of octopuses (Scheel et al., 2016; Amodio et al., 2019) and
their reported cannibalistic attitude (Ibáñez and Keyl, 2010).
Figure 1
Plot showing the time spent in each chamber in Experiment 1 (left) and in Experiment
2 (right). The temporal sequence in which the two experiments were conducted is relevant
only to octopuses that were tested in both experiments (i.e., 3/5 of the sample of
Experiment 1 and 3/4 of the sample of Experiment 2, as reported in the original publication).
The black outlined dots in the plot refer to the identical performances of three subjects
in the second trial of Experiment 1 and in the pre-trial of Experiment 2 (see main
text for detail). The plot was produced from raw data provided in the original paper
(http://dx.doi.org/10.17632/z9t3x4p5kk.1#folder-73b7a7ef-1c00-49f3-addb-1756b279d653).
In addition to these problems with the experimental design, an unusual issue can be
detected in the published raw data. Identical performances (i.e., time spent in each
chamber) are reported for all octopuses that participated in both experiments across
two independent trials (i.e., subjects 1, 4, and 7; Figure 1). The possibility that
multiple octopuses spent the same amount of seconds in each of the three chambers
on two consecutive test trials is theoretically possible, yet extremely unlikely.
When enquiring about this issue with the authors of the original study, in a personal
correspondence it was confirmed that for these three octopuses, the data from the
second trial of Experiment 1 were also used for the baseline trial in the analysis
of Experiment 2. Critically, this is not stated in the publication and raw data file,
and not taken into account in the analyses; in all of these instances the data are
reported and treated as independent.
Finally, data supporting the qualitative effect of MDMA on social behavior hinges
exclusively on the observation that “after MDMA treatment, social interactions were
characterized by extensive ventral surface contact” (Edsinger and Dölen, 2018), p.
3139). Yet, no additional details are provided, so that it is not known whether “extensive
ventral surface contact” were performed exclusively/significantly more often in post-trials.
However, even if either situation was the case, the physical exploration of a stimulus
with multiple arms and the ventral surface of the body is not a social-specific response
in octopuses. Octopuses frequently exhibit this behavior toward inanimate objects
during foraging, play or problem solving (Fiorito et al., 1990; Kuba et al., 2003;
Hanlon and Messenger, 2018). Hence, it is unclear whether these observations could
be taken as strong qualitative evidence demonstrating the prosocial effect of MDMA
in octopus. Similar studies with other model animals focused on actual social behaviors
(e.g., adjacent lying in rodents, first-bite latency in fishes; (Kamilar-Britt and
Bedi, 2015).
Taken together, we are skeptical about the claim that Edsinger and Dolen's experiments
“provide the first functional evidence that the prosocial effects of MDMA are evolutionarily
conserved in O. bimaculoides” (Edsinger and Dölen, 2018), p. 3139). We hope our arguments
against this claim will foster a productive debate within the scientific community,
thereby favoring the adoption of more solid experimental designs to test the effect
of MDMA on octopus behavior, and providing the public with a critical tool to evaluate
this innovative and highly featured study.
Author Contributions
PA wrote the paper with critical additions and revisions by LO. NC and GF provided
useful comments during revisions of the manuscript.
Conflict of Interest Statement
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial
or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.