Does the type of funding influence research results – and do researchers influence funders?

Hove, Kjetil Hatlebakk

doi:10.13169/prometheus.36.2.0153

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Does the type of funding influence research results – and do researchers influence funders?

research-article

Author(s): Kjetil Hatlebakk Hove

Publication date (Print): 1 June 2020

Journal: Prometheus

Publisher: Pluto Journals

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Abstract

Does a shift from hard to soft funding have an impact on research outcomes? Existing literature suggests that moving from hard money, such as lump-sum government-funded research, to commissioned research entails a greater risk of the researchers being influenced by the principal (the funding body). Based on literature and an empirical study, we identify two types of researcher roles: the influential consultant and the technical realist. The first type studies more advanced, important, and diffuse topics on behalf of principals high up in the hierarchy. They have a much greater experience of the issues discussed in this paper than the technical consultants. During the course of this study, we also discovered that the balance of power is not necessarily as one-sided as theory suggests: researchers can wield significant influence over the principals as well.

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Author and article information

Contributors

Kjetil Hatlebakk Hove

Journal

Journal ID (doi): 10.2307/j50022063

Journal ID (jcode): prometheus

Title: Prometheus

Publisher: Pluto Journals

ISSN: 0810-9028

ISSN: 1470-1030

Publication date (Print): 1 June 2020

Volume: 36

Issue: 2 ( doiID: 10.13169/prometheus.36.issue-2 )

Pages: 153-172

Affiliations

Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (FFI), Kjeller, Norway

Article

Publisher ID: prometheus.36.2.0153

DOI: 10.13169/prometheus.36.2.0153

SO-VID: 254a8a3b-1d7a-4d08-bc55-f12597729309

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ScienceOpen disciplines: Computer science,Arts,Social & Behavioral Sciences,Law,History,Economics

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Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Aftenposten (2016) ‘Per Sandberg roter om forskning’ [Per Sandberg misunderstands freedom in research], available at www.aftenposten.no/article/ap-8413375.html (accessed April 2016).

[2] Andvig, J. (2008) ‘Samfunnsforskning på et pseudomarked. En kritikk av norsk forskningsfinansiering’ [Research funding in a pseudo market. A criticism of Norwegian research funding], Nytt Norsk Tidsskrift, 1, pp.3–13.

[3] Ayer, A. (1936) Language, Truth and Logic, Victor Gollancz, London.

[4] Bacon, F. (1620) Novum Organum, available at www.thelatinlibrary.com/bacon.html (accessed February 2016).

[5] Bacon, F. (1863) Novum Organum, translated by Spedding, J., Ellis, R. and Heath, D. available at www.constitution.org/bacon/nov_org.htm (accessed February 2016).

[6] Baker, J. (1939) ‘A counterblast to Bernalism’, New Statesman and Nation, 18, pp.174–5.

[7] Bernal, J. (1939) The Social Function of Science, George Routledge & Sons, London.

[8] Bjartveit, S. and Roos, G. (2005) ‘Hidden agendas’ in Bjartveit, S. and Roos, G. (eds) Scandinavian Perspectives on Management Consulting, Cappelen Damm, Oslo.

[9] Bryden, J., and Mittenzwei, K. (2013) ‘Academic freedom, democracy and the public policy process’, Sociologia Ruralis, 53. 3, pp.311–30.

[10] Chomsky, N. (1969) American Power and the New Mandarins, Pantheon Books, New York.

[11] Chomsky, N. (2002) American Power and the New Mandarins, 2nd ed., New Press, New York.

[12] Christie, A. (1920) The Mysterious Affair at Styles, John Lane, New York.

[13] Cialdini, R. (2001). ‘Harnessing the science of persuasion’, Harvard Business Review, 79, 9, pp.72–81.

[14] Cialdini, R. (2006) Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion, revised ed., Harper Business, New York.

[15] Cialdini, R. (2009) Influence: Science and Practice, Pearson Education, London.

[16] Copernicus, N. (1543) De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium [On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres], Nürnberg.

[17] Dalen, M. (2004) Intervju som forskningsmetode [Interviews as a Research Method] Universitetsforlaget, Oslo.

[18] Etzkowitz, H., Webster, A. and Healey, P. (1998) Capitalizing Knowledge: New Intersections of Industry and Academia, State University of New York Press, New York.

[19] Feighery, W. (2011) ‘Consulting ethics’, Annals of Tourism Research, 38, 3, pp.1031–50.

[20] Fossheim, H., and Ingierd, H. (2012) Forskning og Penger [Research and Money] Etikkom, available at www.etikkom.no/Aktuelt/publikasjoner/Forskning-og-penger/ (accessed January 2016).

[21] French, J. and Raven, B. (1959) ‘The bases of social power’ in Cartwright, D. (ed.) Studies in Social Power, Institute for Social Research, Ann Arbor, MI.

[22] Frickel, S., Gibbon, S., Howard, J. et al. (2010) ‘Undone science: charting social movement and civil society challenges to research agenda setting’, Science, Technology and Human Values, 35, 4, pp.444–73.

[23] Fuchs, R. (1963) ‘Academic freedom. Its basic philosophy, function, and history’, Law and Contemporary Problems, 28, pp.431–46.

[24] Funtowicz, S. and Ravetz, J. (1990) Uncertainty and Quality in Science for Policy. Springer Science & Business Media, Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht.

[25] Funtowicz, S. and Ravetz, J. (1993) ‘Science for the post-normal age’, Futures, 25, 7, pp. 739–55.

[26] Funtowicz, S. and Ravetz, J. (2003) ‘Post-normal science’ in International Society for Ecological Economics, Online Encyclopedia of Ecological Economics, February, available at http://isecoeco.org/pdf/pstnormsc.pdf (accessed May 2020)

[27] Galilei, G. (1632) Dialogo Sopra i Due Massimi Sistemi del Mondo [Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems] Batifta Landini, Florence.

[28] Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H. et al. (1994) The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies, Sage, London.

[29] Greenberg, D. (2001) Science, Money, and Politics: Political Triumph and Ethical Erosion, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

[30] Gummesson, E. (1991) Qualitative Methods in Management Research, Sage, London.

[31] Ham, V. (1999) ‘Tracking the truth or selling one's soul? Reflections on the ethics of a piece of commissioned research’, British Journal of Educational Studies, 47, 3, pp.275–82.

[32] Hammersley, M. and Atkinson, P. (1996) Feltmetodikk: Grunnlaget for Feltarbeid og Feltforskning [Field Method: The Foundation of Fieldwork and Field Research], Ad Notam Gyldendal, Oslo.

[33] Hess, D. (2016) Undone Science: Social Movements, Mobilized Publics, and Industrial Transitions, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

[34] Hultgren, J. and Moe, I. (2011) Styrt forskning. Metoderapport til SKUP [Directed Research. Report on Methods for SKUP], SKUP, Oslo, available at www.skup.no/metoderapporter/2010/2010-05%20Styrt%20forskning.pdf (accessed April 2016).

[35] Kaiser, M., Rønning, K., Ruyter, K. et al. (2003) Contract Research: Openness, Quality, Accountability, Report 4/2003, Secretariat of the National Committees for Research Ethics in Norway, Oslo.

[36] Karran, T. (2007) ‘Academic freedom in Europe: a preliminary comparative analysis’, Higher Education Policy, 20, 3, pp.289-313.

[37] Karran, T. (2009a) ‘Academic freedom at Oxford: the responsibilities of being grown up’, Oxford Magazine, 291, pp.11-14.

[38] Karran, T. (2009b) ‘Academic freedom in Europe: reviewing UNESCO's recommendation’, British Journal of Educational Studies, 57, 2, pp.191-215.

[39] Karran, T. (2009c). ‘Academic freedom in Europe: time for a Magna Charta?‘, Higher Education Policy, 22, 2, pp.163-89.

[40] Karran, T. (2009d). ‘Academic freedom: in justification of a universal ideal’, Studies in Higher Education, 34.3, pp.263-83.

[41] Kayrooz, C. and Preston, P. (2002) ‘Academic freedom: impressions of Australian social scientists’, Minerva, 40, 4, pp.341-58.

[42] Kepler, J. (1609) Astronomia nova AITIOΛOΓHTOΣ, seu Physica Coelestis, Tradita Commentariis de Motibus Stellae Martis [New Astronomy, Based upon Causes, or Celestial Physics, Treated by Means of Commentaries on the Motions of the Star Mars, from the Observations of Tycho Brahe], Vögelin, Heidelberg, available at www.e-rara.ch/doi/10.3931/e-rara-558 (accessed May 2020).

[43] Kirk, R. (1963) ‘Massive subsidies and academic freedom’, Law and Contemporary. Problems, 28, 3, pp.607-12.

[44] Kjærnet, H. (2010) ‘At arm's length? Applied social science and its sponsors’, Journal of Academic Ethics, 8, 3, pp.161-9.

[45] Krimsky, S. (2013) ‘Do financial conflicts of interest bias research? An inquiry into the funding effect hypothesis’, Science, Technology, and Human Values, 38, 4, pp.566-87.

[46] Kuhn, T. (1962) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

[47] Lewin, K. (1944) ‘The dynamics of group action’, Educational Leadership, 1, 4, pp.195-200.

[48] Lewin, K. (1946) ‘Action research and minority problems’, Journal of Social Issues, 2, 4, pp.34-46.

[49] Marginson, S. and Considine, M. (2000) The Enterprise University: Power, Governance and Reinvention in Australia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

[50] McGucken, W. (1978) ‘On freedom and planning in science: the Society for Freedom in Science, 1940-46‘, Minerva 16.1, pp. 42-72. issn: 0026-4695.

[51] Metzger, W. P. (1973). ‘Academic tenure in America: a historical essay’ in Keast, W. and Macy, J. (eds) Faculty Tenure: A Report and Recommendations, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, pp.93-159.

[52] Mill, J. (1901) On Liberty, Walter Scott Publishing, London.

[53] Newton, I. (1686) Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, London.

[54] Østerud, Ø. (2016) ‘Vil fri forskning overleve?‘ [Will freedom in research survive?], Aftenposten Innsikt, 1, p.25.

[55] Ottesen, G., Grønhaug, K. and Johnsen, O. (2002) ‘Benefiting from commissioned research: the role of researcher client cooperation’, Creativity and Innovation Management, 11, 2, pp.88-97.

[56] Polanyi, M. (1940) The Contempt of Freedom: The Russian Experiment and After, Watts & Co, London.

[57] Polanyi, M. (1951) The Logic of Liberty, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.

[58] Polanyi, M. (1958) Personal Knowledge. Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy, Routledge & Kegan Paul, Chicago, IL.

[59] Popper, K. (2002) The Logic of Scientific Discovery, Routledge, London.

[60] Rampton, S. and Stauber, J. (2002) ‘Research funding, conflicts of interest, and the meta-methodology of public relations’, Public Health Reports, 117, 4, pp.331–9.

[61] Raven, B. (1965) ‘Social influence and power’ in Steiner, I. and Fishbein, M. (eds) Current Studies in Social Psychology, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York, pp.371–82.

[62] Ravetz, J. and Funtowicz, S. (1999) ‘Editorial: post-normal science – an insight now maturing’, Futures, 31, 7, pp.641–6.

[63] Richter, M. and Hostettler, U. (2015) ‘Conducting commissioned research in neoliberal academia: the conditions evaluations impose on research practice’, Current Sociology, 63, 4, pp.493–510.

[64] Rolness, K. (2016) ‘Den store feite forskningsskandalen’ [The big, fat research scandal], Dagbladet, 15 April, available at www.dagbladet.no/2016/04/15/kultur/meninger/ideer/helgekommentaren/kjetil_rolness/43886424/ (accessed May 2020).

[65] Rull, V. (2016) ‘Free science under threat’, EMBO Reports, 17, 2, pp.131–5.

[66] Russell, B. (2009) Unpopular Essays, Routledge, London.

[67] Sarewitz, D. (1996) Frontiers of Illusion: Science, Technology and the Politics of Progress, Temple University Press, Philadelphia, PA.

[68] Sellæg, M. (2016) Mandatet Styrer Forskerne [The Mandate Directs the Researchers], Dagens Næringsliv, available at www.dn.no/meninger/debatt/2016/02/19/2145/Forskning/mandatet-sty-rer-forskerne (accessed April 2016).

[69] Skjervheim, H. (1957) Deltakar og Tilskodar [Participant and Audience], Stensilserie, Universitetet i Oslo, Oslo.

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