[Though voices in Europe have begun to resonate with the narrative of a European/Western Islam or Euro-Islam, for many people Islam is still a foreign religion and a religion of immigrants. It is this dilemma that Europe will need to address by acknowledging its Muslim population as European citizens as well. Embarking upon a path where citizenship is increasingly seen to be viewed from a cultural perspective inevitably leads to a debate about shared values and identities. This, rather than creating a mediating space instead engenders the overall dichotomous and myopic paradigm of opposites and incompatibilities, an 'Us versus Them mentality'. The cultural aspect of citizenship manifested in recently emerging policy shifts and legislation, though propagated as efforts to "integrate" Muslim minorities into European secular orders is in danger of being counter-productive, creating further alienation and resentment. Thus what is desired is a distinction between political and cultural approaches to citizenship whereby citizenship is addressed in terms of political and civil rights. The premise being that a sincere desire to engender peaceful coexistence, with European identity being envisioned as a shared identity requires a democratic citizenship which in essence is a shared citizenship, characterized by diversity and pluralism, and not one insisting on cultural or civilizational homogeneity. This naturally entails formulation of policy guidelines that foster mutual trust and respect as well as addressing the socioeconomic, political and civic dimensions of citizenship.]
Lewis, God's Crucible, 570-1215 also, Al-Azmeh and Fokas, eds., Islam in Europe.
Ibid.
Pew Research Center, "The Future of the Global Muslim Population," 124, Peach, "Muslim Population of Europe: A Brief Overview of Demographic Trends and Socioeconomic Integration, with Particular Reference to Britain," 11.
Hakim and Harris, "Muslims in the European 'Mediascape'," Monso and de Saint Pol, "Geographic origin of individuals in French population censuses."
Delanty, "The Making of a Post Western Europe," 8-25.
Tariq Ramadan, "A Struggle over Europe's Religious Identity," New York Times, September 20, 2006.
Casanova, José. "Religion, European Secular Identities and European Integration."
Avruch and Black, "Conflict Resolution in Intercultural Settings," 131-145.
Al-Azmeh and Fokas, eds., op. cit., 17.
Morgan, Lost History.
Hunter, The Future of Islam and the West, 12.
Ahmed, Living Islam, 72.
Hurd, The Politics of Secularism in International Relations, 1-22.
Peach and Glebe, "Muslim Minorities in Western Europe." 26-45.
Poole, Reporting Islam, 17.
Malik, From Fatwa to Jihad, 2009.
Cesari, "Europe's Muslims."
Khan, "Islam and the New Europe."
Ibid.
Cesari (a), "The Securitization of Islam in Europe."
Ben-David, "Europe's Shifting Immigration Dynamic."
Roger Cohen, "Dutch Virtue of Tolerance under Strain," The New York Times, November 7, 2005.
Güvercin, "Full Equality before the Law for All Religions."
Hurd, op. cit., 1-22.
Buruma, Murder in Amsterdam, 69.
Allen, ed., "Few Siqns of Backlash from Western Europeans."
Berger, The Sacred Canopy, 107.
Khan, op. cit."
Hirschkind and Mahmood, "Feminism, the Taliban and Politics of Counter- Insurgency," 352.
Cesari, op. cit.
Hurd, op.cit., 1-22.
Helen Johnstone, "Human Rights Court Upholds Headscarf Ban," The Independence, June 30, 2004, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/human-rights-court-upholds- headscarf-ban-734059.html (accessed January 10, 2012).
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WZB, "VEIL: Values Equality and Differences in Liberal Democracies."
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Human Right Watch, "Discrimination in the Name of Neutrality."
Angelique Chrisafis, "France's Burqa Ban: Women are 'Effectively under House Arrest,'" The Guardian, September 19, 2011, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/sep/19/battle-for-the-burqa (accessed January 10, 2012).
Carrera and Parkin, "The Place of Religion in European Union Law and Policy.
Bowlby, Do Denmark's immigration laws breach human rights?.
Cesari (a), op.cit.
VEIL, op.cit.
BBC, "Row over Denmark Court Veil Ban," May 19, 2008, http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/europe/7409072.stm (accessed January 10, 2012).
BBC, "Denmark's Immigration Issue," February, 19 2005, http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/4276963.stm (accessed January 10, 2012). See also, Cesari, op. cit.
CNN, "Europe's Resurgent Far Right Focuses on Immigration, Multiculturalism," July 24, 2011, http://articles.cnn.com/2011-0724/world/europe.far.right_1_political-parties- multiculturalism-danish-people-s-party?_s=PM: WORLD (accessed January 15, 2012).
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Brady, "EU Migration Policy: An A-Z."
Callamard, "Freedom of Speech and Offence."
Carrera and Parkin, op.cit.
Cesari (b), "Mosque Conflicts in European Cities."
BBC, "Paris Ban on Muslim Street Prayers Comes into Effect," September 16, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-14945467 (accessed January 15, 2012).
Modood, "Muslims and the Politics of Difference," 100.
Ramadan, "Europeanization of Islam or Islamization of Europe?," 212-213.
Ramadan (a), To Be a European Muslim. Ramadan (b), Western Muslims and the Future of Islam.
US Department of State, "Muslims in Europe."
Allievi, "Conflicts over Mosques in Europe."
Kastoryano, "Citizenship, Nationhood and Non-territoriality."
Cesari. Op.cit.
Nyiri, "Muslims in Berlin, London, and Paris."
Allen, op.cit.
Brady, op.cit.
Cesari, op.cit.
Communication from the European Commission, "Common Agenda for Integration," September 1, 2005.
Cesari (c), "Muslims in European Public Spheres and the Limits of Liberal Theories of Citizenship."
Al-Azmeh, op. cit., 9.
Karlsson, "Muslim Immigrants."
March, "Reading Tariq Ramadan."
Karlsson, op. cit.
EUMC, "Muslims in the European Union."
Masood, "Swapping Treasures, Sharing Losses, Celebrating Futures."
Esposito, The Future of Islam.
Öktem, et. al., Muslims in the European 'Mediascape.'
Menocal, The Ornament of the World, The Center for Dialogues, "Europe and Islam."
Masood, op. cit.
Haddad and Smith, eds., Muslim Minorities in the West.