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      Bifunctional scaffolds for tumor therapy and bone regeneration: Synergistic effect and interplay between therapeutic agents and scaffold materials

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          Abstract

          Bone tumor patients often face the problems with cancer cell residues and bone defects after the operation. Therefore, researchers have developed many bifunctional scaffolds with both tumor treatment and bone repair functions. Therapeutic agents are usually combined with bioactive scaffolds to achieve the “bifunctional”. However, the synergistic effect of bifunctional scaffolds on tumor therapy and bone repair, as well as the interplay between therapeutic agents and scaffold materials in bifunctional scaffolds, have not been emphasized and discussed. This review proposes a promising design scheme for bifunctional scaffolds: the synergistic effect and interplay between the therapeutic agents and scaffold materials. This review summarizes the latest research progress in bifunctional scaffolds for therapeutic applications and regeneration. In particular, it summarizes the role of tumor therapeutic agents in bone regeneration and the role of scaffold materials in tumor treatment. Finally, a perspective on the future development of bifunctional scaffolds for tumor therapy and bone regeneration is discussed.

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          Global cancer statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries

          Hyuna Sung, Jacques Ferlay, Rebecca Siegel … (2021)
          This article provides an update on the global cancer burden using the GLOBOCAN 2020 estimates of cancer incidence and mortality produced by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Worldwide, an estimated 19.3 million new cancer cases (18.1 million excluding nonmelanoma skin cancer) and almost 10.0 million cancer deaths (9.9 million excluding nonmelanoma skin cancer) occurred in 2020. Female breast cancer has surpassed lung cancer as the most commonly diagnosed cancer, with an estimated 2.3 million new cases (11.7%), followed by lung (11.4%), colorectal (10.0 %), prostate (7.3%), and stomach (5.6%) cancers. Lung cancer remained the leading cause of cancer death, with an estimated 1.8 million deaths (18%), followed by colorectal (9.4%), liver (8.3%), stomach (7.7%), and female breast (6.9%) cancers. Overall incidence was from 2-fold to 3-fold higher in transitioned versus transitioning countries for both sexes, whereas mortality varied <2-fold for men and little for women. Death rates for female breast and cervical cancers, however, were considerably higher in transitioning versus transitioned countries (15.0 vs 12.8 per 100,000 and 12.4 vs 5.2 per 100,000, respectively). The global cancer burden is expected to be 28.4 million cases in 2040, a 47% rise from 2020, with a larger increase in transitioning (64% to 95%) versus transitioned (32% to 56%) countries due to demographic changes, although this may be further exacerbated by increasing risk factors associated with globalization and a growing economy. Efforts to build a sustainable infrastructure for the dissemination of cancer prevention measures and provision of cancer care in transitioning countries is critical for global cancer control.
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            The blockade of immune checkpoints in cancer immunotherapy.

            Drew M Pardoll (2012)
            Among the most promising approaches to activating therapeutic antitumour immunity is the blockade of immune checkpoints. Immune checkpoints refer to a plethora of inhibitory pathways hardwired into the immune system that are crucial for maintaining self-tolerance and modulating the duration and amplitude of physiological immune responses in peripheral tissues in order to minimize collateral tissue damage. It is now clear that tumours co-opt certain immune-checkpoint pathways as a major mechanism of immune resistance, particularly against T cells that are specific for tumour antigens. Because many of the immune checkpoints are initiated by ligand-receptor interactions, they can be readily blocked by antibodies or modulated by recombinant forms of ligands or receptors. Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA4) antibodies were the first of this class of immunotherapeutics to achieve US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval. Preliminary clinical findings with blockers of additional immune-checkpoint proteins, such as programmed cell death protein 1 (PD1), indicate broad and diverse opportunities to enhance antitumour immunity with the potential to produce durable clinical responses.
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              Oncology meets immunology: the cancer-immunity cycle.

              Daniel S. Chen, Ira Mellman (2013)
              The genetic and cellular alterations that define cancer provide the immune system with the means to generate T cell responses that recognize and eradicate cancer cells. However, elimination of cancer by T cells is only one step in the Cancer-Immunity Cycle, which manages the delicate balance between the recognition of nonself and the prevention of autoimmunity. Identification of cancer cell T cell inhibitory signals, including PD-L1, has prompted the development of a new class of cancer immunotherapy that specifically hinders immune effector inhibition, reinvigorating and potentially expanding preexisting anticancer immune responses. The presence of suppressive factors in the tumor microenvironment may explain the limited activity observed with previous immune-based therapies and why these therapies may be more effective in combination with agents that target other steps of the cycle. Emerging clinical data suggest that cancer immunotherapy is likely to become a key part of the clinical management of cancer. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
              Article 0 comments Cited 1831 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Xujie Liu
                Yan He
                Qingling Feng
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Mater Today Bio
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Mater Today Bio
                Title: Materials Today Bio
                Publisher: Elsevier
                ISSN (Electronic): 2590-0064
                Publication date PMC-release: 09 June 2022
                Publication date Collection: June 2022
                Publication date (Electronic): 09 June 2022
                Volume: 15
                Electronic Location Identifier: 100318
                Affiliations
                [a ]School of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China
                [b ]School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
                Author notes
                [∗ ]Corresponding author. liuxujie@ 123456gdut.edu.cn
                [∗∗ ]Corresponding author. heyan129@ 123456gdut.edu.cn
                [∗∗∗ ]Corresponding author. biomater@ 123456tsinghua.edu.cn
                Article
                Publisher Item ID: S2590-0064(22)00116-8 Publisher ID: 100318
                DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2022.100318
                PMC ID: 9207581
                PubMed ID: 35734197
                SO-VID: 25a9fa0e-4321-4ed9-86ee-54cdf735efb9
                Copyright © © 2022 The Authors
                License:

                This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 29 March 2022
                Date revision received : 31 May 2022
                Date accepted : 6 June 2022
                Categories
                Subject: Review Article

                Keywords: bifunctional scaffolds,bone tumor,bone regeneration,synergistic effect
                Data availability:
                Keywords: bifunctional scaffolds, bone tumor, bone regeneration, synergistic effect

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