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      Antiviral Immunity in Amphibians

      review-article
      Author(s): , *
      Publication date (Electronic):
      Journal: Viruses
      Publisher: Molecular Diversity Preservation International (MDPI)
      Keywords: iridovirus, viral infection, amphibian

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          Abstract

          Although a variety of virus species can infect amphibians, diseases caused by ranaviruses ([RVs]; Iridoviridae) have become prominent, and are a major concern for biodiversity, agriculture and international trade. The relatively recent and rapid increase in prevalence of RV infections, the wide range of host species infected by RVs, the variability in host resistance among population of the same species and among different developmental stages, all suggest an important involvement of the amphibian immune system. Nevertheless, the roles of the immune system in the etiology of viral diseases in amphibians are still poorly investigated. We review here the current knowledge of antiviral immunity in amphibians, focusing on model species such as the frog Xenopus and the salamander ( Ambystoma tigrinum), and on recent progress in generating tools to better understand how host immune defenses control RV infections, pathogenicity, and transmission.

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          The evolution of vertebrate Toll-like receptors.

          Jared Roach, Gustavo Glusman, Lee Rowen … (2005)
          The complete sequences of Takifugu Toll-like receptor (TLR) loci and gene predictions from many draft genomes enable comprehensive molecular phylogenetic analysis. Strong selective pressure for recognition of and response to pathogen-associated molecular patterns has maintained a largely unchanging TLR recognition in all vertebrates. There are six major families of vertebrate TLRs. This repertoire is distinct from that of invertebrates. TLRs within a family recognize a general class of pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Most vertebrates have exactly one gene ortholog for each TLR family. The family including TLR1 has more species-specific adaptations than other families. A major family including TLR11 is represented in humans only by a pseudogene. Coincidental evolution plays a minor role in TLR evolution. The sequencing phase of this study produced finished genomic sequences for the 12 Takifugu rubripes TLRs. In addition, we have produced >70 gene models, including sequences from the opossum, chicken, frog, dog, sea urchin, and sea squirt.
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            The immune system evolved to discriminate infectious nonself from noninfectious self.

            C A Janeway (1992)
            Here, Charles Janeway argues that the requirement for two signals to initiate the adaptive immune response may reflect the evolutionary history of host defences. Early phases of host defence involve receptors and ligands that may have controlled immune responses prior to the development of clonally-distributed receptors encoded in rearranging genes. The former receptors persist in contemporary vertebrates both to trigger innate or nonclonal responses and to signal to lymphocytes that a particular antigen is associated with a microorganism.
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              The ecology and impact of chytridiomycosis: an emerging disease of amphibians.

              A. Kilpatrick, Cheryl Briggs, Peter Daszak (2010)
              Emerging infectious diseases are increasingly recognized as key threats to wildlife. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), the causative agent of chytridiomycosis, has been implicated in widespread amphibian declines and is currently the largest infectious disease threat to biodiversity. Here, we review the causes of Bd emergence, its impact on amphibian populations and the ecology of Bd transmission. We describe studies to answer outstanding issues, including the origin of the pathogen, the effect of Bd relative to other causes of population declines, the modes of Bd dispersal, and factors influencing the intensity of its transmission. Chytridiomycosis is an archetypal emerging disease, with a broad host range and significant impacts on host populations and, as such, poses a crucial challenge for wildlife managers and an urgent conservation concern. Copyright 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Viruses
                Title: Viruses
                Publisher: Molecular Diversity Preservation International (MDPI)
                ISSN (Electronic): 1999-4915
                Publication date Collection: November 2011
                Publication date (Electronic): 31 October 2011
                Volume: 3
                Issue: 11
                Pages: 2065-2086
                Affiliations
                Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA; E-Mail: Guangchun_Chen@ 123456URMC.Rochester.edu
                Author notes
                [* ]Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: Jacques_Robert@ 123456urmc.rochester.edu ; Tel.: +1-585-275-1722; Fax +1-585-473-9573.
                Article
                Publisher ID: viruses-03-02065
                DOI: 10.3390/v3112065
                PMC ID: 3230842
                PubMed ID: 22163335
                SO-VID: 4a5aaaca-b446-4857-b5be-60ee99e23de5
                Copyright © © 2011 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
                License:

                This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).

                History
                Date received : 5 September 2011
                Date revision received : 20 October 2011
                Date accepted : 22 October 2011
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Microbiology & Virology
                Keywords: viral infection,iridovirus,amphibian
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Microbiology & Virology
                Keywords: viral infection, iridovirus, amphibian

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