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      Ketogenic Diet and Microbiota: Friends or Enemies?

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          Abstract

          Over the last years, a growing body of evidence suggests that gut microbial communities play a fundamental role in many aspects of human health and diseases. The gut microbiota is a very dynamic entity influenced by environment and nutritional behaviors. Considering the influence of such a microbial community on human health and its multiple mechanisms of action as the production of bioactive compounds, pathogens protection, energy homeostasis, nutrients metabolism and regulation of immunity, establishing the influences of different nutritional approach is of pivotal importance. The very low carbohydrate ketogenic diet is a very popular dietary approach used for different aims: from weight loss to neurological diseases. The aim of this review is to dissect the complex interactions between ketogenic diet and gut microbiota and how this large network may influence human health.

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          Formation of propionate and butyrate by the human colonic microbiota

          Petra Louis, Harry J. Flint (2017)
          The human gut microbiota ferments dietary non-digestible carbohydrates into short-chain fatty acids (SCFA). These microbial products are utilized by the host and propionate and butyrate in particular exert a range of health-promoting functions. Here an overview of the metabolic pathways utilized by gut microbes to produce these two SCFA from dietary carbohydrates and from amino acids resulting from protein breakdown is provided. This overview emphasizes the important role played by cross-feeding of intermediary metabolites (in particular lactate, succinate and 1,2-propanediol) between different gut bacteria. The ecophysiology, including growth requirements and responses to environmental factors, of major propionate and butyrate producing bacteria are discussed in relation to dietary modulation of these metabolites. A detailed understanding of SCFA metabolism by the gut microbiota is necessary to underpin effective strategies to optimize SCFA supply to the host.
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            Short-chain fatty acids and human colonic function: roles of resistant starch and nonstarch polysaccharides.

            David Topping, Peter M. Clifton (2001)
            Resistant starch (RS) is starch and products of its small intestinal digestion that enter the large bowel. It occurs for various reasons including chemical structure, cooking of food, chemical modification, and food mastication. Human colonic bacteria ferment RS and nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP; major components of dietary fiber) to short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), mainly acetate, propionate, and butyrate. SCFA stimulate colonic blood flow and fluid and electrolyte uptake. Butyrate is a preferred substrate for colonocytes and appears to promote a normal phenotype in these cells. Fermentation of some RS types favors butyrate production. Measurement of colonic fermentation in humans is difficult, and indirect measures (e.g., fecal samples) or animal models have been used. Of the latter, rodents appear to be of limited value, and pigs or dogs are preferable. RS is less effective than NSP in stool bulking, but epidemiological data suggest that it is more protective against colorectal cancer, possibly via butyrate. RS is a prebiotic, but knowledge of its other interactions with the microflora is limited. The contribution of RS to fermentation and colonic physiology seems to be greater than that of NSP. However, the lack of a generally accepted analytical procedure that accommodates the major influences on RS means this is yet to be established.
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              Health benefits of fermented foods: microbiota and beyond.

              Maria L. Marco, Dustin Heeney, Sylvie Binda … (2017)
              Fermented foods and beverages were among the first processed food products consumed by humans. The production of foods such as yogurt and cultured milk, wine and beer, sauerkraut and kimchi, and fermented sausage were initially valued because of their improved shelf life, safety, and organoleptic properties. It is increasingly understood that fermented foods can also have enhanced nutritional and functional properties due to transformation of substrates and formation of bioactive or bioavailable end-products. Many fermented foods also contain living microorganisms of which some are genetically similar to strains used as probiotics. Although only a limited number of clinical studies on fermented foods have been performed, there is evidence that these foods provide health benefits well-beyond the starting food materials.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Genes (Basel)
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Genes (Basel)
                Journal ID (publisher-id): genes
                Title: Genes
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2073-4425
                Publication date (Electronic): 15 July 2019
                Publication date Collection: July 2019
                Volume: 10
                Issue: 7
                Electronic Location Identifier: 534
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
                [2 ]Research Center for High Performance Sport, UCAM, Catholic University of Murcia, 30107 Murcia, Spain
                [3 ]Italian Microbiome Project, 35100 Padova, Italy
                [4 ]Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, 90133 Palermo, Italy
                [5 ]Clinical and Sports Nutrition Research Laboratory (LABINCE), Federal University of Goiás, 74690-900 Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: antonio.paoli@ 123456unipd.it ; Tel.: +39-049-827-5318
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0474-4229
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8334-6581
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5991-8316
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6123-7616
                Article
                Publisher ID: genes-10-00534
                DOI: 10.3390/genes10070534
                PMC ID: 6678592
                PubMed ID: 31311141
                SO-VID: 4eb34963-00a1-405c-b41c-44f19e5f3b0d
                Copyright © © 2019 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 02 June 2019
                Date accepted : 10 July 2019
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                Keywords: gut microbiota,gut microbiome,intestinal microbiome,ketogenic diet,ketogenic diet and fat
                Data availability:
                Keywords: gut microbiota, gut microbiome, intestinal microbiome, ketogenic diet, ketogenic diet and fat

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