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      Essential Oil Extraction, Chemical Analysis and Anti- Candida Activity of Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi subsp. glandulosa (Req.) Ball—New Approaches

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          Abstract

          A comprehensive study on essential oils extracted from different Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi subsp. glandulosa (Req.) Ball samples from Tarquinia (Italy) is reported. In this study, the 24-h steam distillation procedure for essential oil preparation, in terms of different harvesting and extraction times, was applied. The Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis showed that C. nepeta (L.) Savi subsp. glandulosa (Req.) Ball essential oils from Tarquinia belong to the pulegone-rich chemotype. The analysis of 44 samples revealed that along with pulegone, some other chemicals may participate in exerting the related antifungal activity. The results indicated that for higher activity, the essential oils should be produced with at least a 6-h steam distillation process. Even though it is not so dependent on the period of harvesting, it could be recommended not to harvest the plant in the fruiting stage, since no significant antifungal effect was shown. The maximum essential oil yield was obtained in August, with the highest pulegone percentage. To obtain the oil with a higher content of menthone, September and October should be considered as the optimal periods. Regarding the extraction duration, vegetative stage material gives the oil in the first 3 h, while material from the reproductive phase should be extracted at least at 6 or even 12 h.

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          Antibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oils.

          D Kalemba, A Kunicka (2003)
          In recent years there has been an increasing interest in the use of natural substances, and some questions concerning the safety of synthetic compounds have encouraged more detailed studies of plant resources. Essential oils, odorous and volatile products of plant secondary metabolism, have a wide application in folk medicine, food flavouring and preservation as well as in fragrance industries. The antimicrobial properties of essential oils have been known for many centuries. In recent years (1987-2001), a large number of essential oils and their constituents have been investigated for their antimicrobial properties against some bacteria and fungi in more than 500 reports. This paper reviews the classical methods commonly used for the evaluation of essential oils antibacterial and antifungal activities. The agar diffusion method (paper disc and well) and the dilution method (agar and liquid broth) as well as turbidimetric and impedimetric monitoring of microorganism growth in the presence of tested essential oils are described. Factors influencing the in vitro antimicrobial activity of essential oils and the mechanisms of essential oils action on microorganisms are reported. This paper gives an overview on the susceptibility of human and food-borne bacteria and fungi towards different essential oils and their constituents. Essential oils of spices and herbs (thyme, origanum, mint, cinnamon, salvia and clove) were found to possess the strongest antimicrobial properties among many tested.
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            Essential oils: extraction, bioactivities, and their uses for food preservation.

            Phakawat Tongnuanchan, Soottawat Benjakul (2014)
            Essential oils are concentrated liquids of complex mixtures of volatile compounds and can be extracted from several plant organs. Essential oils are a good source of several bioactive compounds, which possess antioxidative and antimicrobial properties. In addition, some essential oils have been used as medicine. Furthermore, the uses of essential oils have received increasing attention as the natural additives for the shelf-life extension of food products, due to the risk in using synthetic preservatives. Essential oils can be incorporated into packaging, in which they can provide multifunctions termed "active or smart packaging." Those essential oils are able to modify the matrix of packaging materials, thereby rendering the improved properties. This review covers up-to-date literatures on essential oils including sources, chemical composition, extraction methods, bioactivities, and their applications, particularly with the emphasis on preservation and the shelf-life extension of food products.
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              Essential oils of Satureja, Origanum, and Thymus species: chemical composition and antibacterial activities against foodborne pathogens.

              S Mitaku, Nikos Chorianopoulos, Serkos Haroutounian … (2004)
              The chemical composition of the essential oils obtained from the species restricted to Greece and the eastern Mediterranean region, Satureja spinosa L. and Thymus longicaulis L.; species endemic to central and south Greece, Satureja parnassica ssp. parnassica Heldr. and Sart ex Boiss.; species endemic to the island of Crete, Origanum dictamnus L.; and species widely distributed in the Mediterranean region, Satureja thymbra L. and Origanum vulgare L. subsp. hirtum, were determined by gas chromatography (GC) and GC/mass spectrometry (MS) analysis. The in vitro antibacterial activities of the essential oils were evaluated against a panel of five foodborne bacteria (Escherichia coli 0157:H7 NCTC 12900, Salmonella enteritidis PT4, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538, Listeria monocytogenes ScottA, and Bacillus cereus FSS 134). The analytical data indicated that various monoterpene hydrocarbons and phenolic monoterpenes constitute the major components of the oils, but their concentrations varied greatly among the oils examined. The antibacterial assay results showed that 5 muL doses of the essential oils extracted from the endemic Satureja species in Greece possess remarkable bactericidal properties, which are clearly superior as compared to those of Origanum and Thymus species essential oils. Therefore, they represent an inexpensive source of natural mixtures of antibacterial compounds that exhibit potentials for use in food systems to prevent the growth of foodborne bacteria and extend the shelf life of the processed food.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Olga Tzakou: Role: Academic Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Molecules
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Molecules
                Journal ID (publisher-id): molecules
                Title: Molecules : A Journal of Synthetic Chemistry and Natural Product Chemistry
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 1420-3049
                Publication date (Electronic): 26 January 2017
                Publication date Collection: February 2017
                Volume: 22
                Issue: 2
                Electronic Location Identifier: 203
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Rome Center for Molecular Design, Sapienza University, P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy; mijat.bozovic@ 123456uniroma1.it (M.B.); manuela.sabatino@ 123456uniroma1.it (M.S.)
                [2 ]Department of Drug Chemistry and Technology, Sapienza University, P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy; stefania.garzoli@ 123456uniroma1.it (S.G.); federico.pepi@ 123456uniroma1.it (F.P.); antonello.mai@ 123456uniroma1.it (A.M.)
                [3 ]Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy and Heath Products, University of Ferrara, Via L. Borsari 46, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; anna.baldisserotto@ 123456unife.it
                [4 ]Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Viale Caduti in Guerra 127, 41121 Modena, Italy; elisa.andreotti@ 123456unimo.it (E.A.); carlo.romagnoli@ 123456unimo.it (C.R.)
                [5 ]Alchemical Dynamics s.r.l., 00125 Rome, Italy
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: stefano.manfredini@ 123456unife.it (S.M.); rino.ragno@ 123456uniroma1.it (R.R.); Tel.: +39-532-974-635 (S.M.); +39-6-4991-3937 (R.R.); Fax: +39-532-455-953 (S.M.); +39-6-4991-3627 (R.R.)
                [†]

                M.B. and S.G. contributed equally to the paper.

                Article
                Publisher ID: molecules-22-00203
                DOI: 10.3390/molecules22020203
                PMC ID: 6155801
                PubMed ID: 28134788
                SO-VID: 715fed30-fbb1-41a2-b9a3-8e6b4d847e73
                Copyright © © 2017 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 28 November 2016
                Date accepted : 24 January 2017
                Categories
                Subject: Article

                Keywords: calamintha nepeta (l.) savi subsp. glandulosa (req.) ball,24-h steam distillation,gc/ms,essential oils,anti-candida activity,pulegone,menthone
                Data availability:
                Keywords: calamintha nepeta (l.) savi subsp. glandulosa (req.) ball, 24-h steam distillation, gc/ms, essential oils, anti-candida activity, pulegone, menthone

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