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      Protocolos de rastreamento para o diagnóstico precoce do câncer de pulmão: passado, presente e futuro Translated title: Screening for lung cancer: past, present and future

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          Abstract

          O carcinoma brônquico é, de todos, o de maior letalidade, responsabilizando-se, anualmente, por maior número de óbitos do que aqueles decorrentes do câncer do cólon, mama e próstata juntos. Seguindo seu curso natural, mais de 50% dos pacientes têm metástases a distância e somente 20 a 25% são potencialmente ressecáveis no momento do diagnóstico, com perspectiva de sobrevida em cinco anos de apenas 14%. Os protocolos de rastreamento, baseados em radiografias do tórax e citologia do escarro, realizados há 30 anos com o intuito de estabelecer o diagnóstico precoce, mostraram maior índice de ressecabilidade e melhores taxas de sobrevida, porém sem causar impacto na redução da mortalidade específica. Nos últimos anos, com o advento da tomografia computadorizada helicoidal de baixa dose e de novas técnicas para análise das secreções respiratórias e da mucosa brônquica, com o potencial para identificar casos de câncer de pulmão em fases mais precoces de sua evolução natural, os protocolos de rastreamento voltam a despertar o interesse. Os autores revisam os protocolos de rastreamento realizados no passado, assim como analisam os estudos prospectivos mais recentes e discutem as perspectivas futuras, destacando suas principais limitações, os problemas metodológicos no seu delineamento e principais vieses que comprometem a interpretação dos resultados.

          Translated abstract

          Lung cancer is the leading cause of death from cancer. More people die each year of bronchial carcinoma than of colon, breast, and prostate cancer combined. More than 50% of the patients will have distant metastases at diagnosis and only 20-25% of these will be localized and potentially resectable, with a five-year survival of 14%. Prior chest radiographs and sputum cytology studies lead to clinically meaningful improvements in stage distribution, resectability and survival, but no disease-specific mortality reductions have been demonstrated. More recently, these techniques have evolved to those of screening by low-dose spiral computed tomography and by the use of specific biomarkers for early detection, thus bringing back interest in lung cancer screening. The authors review screening for lung cancer made in the past, analyze more recent prospective studies, and the prospects for the future, and they point to their main limitations, methodological problems in design, major biases, all of which may invalidate the interpretation of results.

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          Most cited references66

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          Revisions in the International System for Staging Lung Cancer.

          Revisions in stage grouping of the TNM subsets (T=primary tumor, N=regional lymph nodes, M=distant metastasis) in the International System for Staging Lung Cancer have been adopted by the American Joint Committee on Cancer and the Union Internationale Contre le Cancer. These revisions were made to provide greater specificity for identifying patient groups with similar prognoses and treatment options with the least disruption of the present classification: T1N0M0, stage IA; T2N0M0, stage IB; T1N1M0, stage IIA; T2N1M0 and T3N0M0, stage IIB; and T3N1M0, T1N2M0, T2N2M0, T3N2M0, stage IIIA. The TNM subsets in stage IIIB-T4 any N M0, any T N3M0, and in stage IV-any T any N M1, remain the same. Analysis of a collected database representing all clinical, surgical-pathologic, and follow-up information for 5,319 patients treated for primary lung cancer confirmed the validity of the TNM and stage grouping classification schema.
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            Early lung cancer detection: results of the initial (prevalence) radiologic and cytologic screening in the Johns Hopkins study.

            The Johns Hopkins Lung Project was designed to determine whether the addition of cytologic screening to the radiographic screening of high-risk volunteers could enhance the early detection of asymptomatic lung cancer and whether early therapeutic intervention in detected cases could significantly reduce the mortality from this disease. Male volunteers, 45 yr of age and older, who smoked at least 1 pack of cigarettes per day were recruited from the Baltimore metropolitan area. All of the 10,387 acceptable high-risk volunteers received annual chest radiographic screening. By random assignment, one half received cytologic examination of induced sputum in addition to the roentgenogram. This report describes the results of the initial screening. Compared with usual methods of clinical diagnosis, screening by both roentgenography and cytology identified a greater proportion of the lung cancer cases at an earlier stage. Screening by sputum cytology was found to improve the detection only of squamous cell carcinoma. In the dual-screen group, sputum cytology accounted for 28% of the detected cases, and resulted in 39% additional detection of lung cancer over that achieved by roentgenography. There was no corresponding decrease in prevalence. Lung cancers detected by cytology alone were found at very early stages. Although there has been an increase in average survival, much of this increase, if not all, may have resulted from lead-time and sampling bias.
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              Screening for lung cancer with low-dose helical computed tomography: anti-lung cancer association project.

              Because efficacy of lung cancer screening using chest x-ray is controversial and insufficient, other screening modalities need to be developed. To provide data on screening performance of low-dose helical computed tomography (CT) scanning and its efficacy in terms of survival, a one-arm longitudinal screening project was conducted. A total of 1,611 asymptomatic patients aged 40 to 79 years, 86% with smoking history, were screened by low-dose helical CT scan, chest x-ray, and 3-day pooled sputum cytology with a 6-month interval. At initial screening, the proportions of positive tests were 11.5%, 3.4%, and 0.8% with low-dose helical CT scan, chest x-ray, and sputum cytology, respectively. In 1,611 participants, 14 (0.87%) cases of lung cancer were detected, with 71% being stage IA disease and a mean tumor diameter of 19.8 mm. At repeated screening, the proportions of positive tests were 9.1%, 2.6%, and 0.7% with low-dose helical CT, chest x-ray, and sputum cytology, respectively. In 7,891 examinations, 22 (0.28%) cases of lung cancer were detected, with 82% being stage IA disease and a mean tumor diameter of 14.6 mm. The 5-year survival rate for screen-detected lung cancer was 76.2% and 64.9% for initial and repeated screening, respectively. Screening with low-dose helical CT has potential to improve screening efficacy in terms of reducing lung cancer mortality. An evaluation of efficacy using appropriate methods is urgently required.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Journal
                jpneu
                Jornal de Pneumologia
                J. Pneumologia
                Sociedade Brasileira de Pneumologia e Tisiologia (São Paulo )
                1678-4642
                September 2002
                : 28
                : 5
                : 294-301
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Universidade Federal da Bahia Brazil
                Article
                S0102-35862002000500010
                10.1590/S0102-35862002000500010
                904853d3-5d77-4454-a3f9-297c42925353

                http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

                History
                Product

                SciELO Brazil

                Self URI (journal page): http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_serial&pid=0102-3586&lng=en
                Categories
                RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

                Respiratory medicine
                Lung neoplasms,Bronchogenic carcinoma,Clinical protocols,Smoking,Coin pulmonary lesion,Neoplasias pulmonares,Tabagismo,Carcinoma broncogênico,Protocolos clínicos,Lesão mumular pulmonar

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