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      Ganoderma lucidum Protects Dopaminergic Neuron Degeneration through Inhibition of Microglial Activation

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          Abstract

          Abundant evidence has suggested that neuroinflammation participates in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). The emerging evidence has supported that microglia may play key roles in the progressive neurodegeneration in PD and might be a promising therapeutic target. Ganoderma lucidum (GL), a traditional Chinese medicinal herb, has been shown potential neuroprotective effects in our clinical trials that make us to speculate that it might possess potent anti-inflammatory and immunomodulating properties. To test this hypothesis, we investigated the potential neuroprotective effect of GL and possible underlying mechanism of action through protecting microglial activation using co-cultures of dopaminergic neurons and microglia. The microglia is activated by LPS and MPP +-treated MES 23.5 cell membranes. Meanwhile, GL extracts significantly prevent the production of microglia-derived proinflammatory and cytotoxic factors [nitric oxide, tumor necrosis factor- α (TNF- α ), interlukin 1 β (IL-1 β )] in a dose-dependent manner and down-regulate the TNF- α and IL-1 β expressions on mRNA level as well. In conclusion, our results support that GL may be a promising agent for the treatment of PD through anti-inflammation.

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          Function and activation of NF-kappa B in the immune system.

          P Baeuerle, T. Henkel (1994)
          NF-kappa B is a ubiquitous transcription factor. Nevertheless, its properties seem to be most extensively exploited in cells of the immune system. Among these properties are NF-kappa B's rapid posttranslational activation in response to many pathogenic signals, its direct participation in cytoplasmic/nuclear signaling, and its potency to activate transcription of a great variety of genes encoding immunologically relevant proteins. In vertebrates, five distinct DNA binding subunits are currently known which might extensively heterodimerize, thereby forming complexes with distinct transcriptional activity, DNA sequence specificity, and cell type- and cell stage-specific distribution. The activity of DNA binding NF-kappa B dimers is tightly controlled by accessory proteins called I kappa B subunits of which there are also five different species currently known in vertebrates. I kappa B proteins inhibit DNA binding and prevent nuclear uptake of NF-kappa B complexes. An exception is the Bcl-3 protein which in addition can function as a transcription activating subunit in th nucleus. Other I kappa B proteins are rather involved in terminating NF-kappa B's activity in the nucleus. The intracellular events that lead to the inactivation of I kappa B, i.e. the activation of NF-kappa B, are complex. They involve phosphorylation and proteolytic reactions and seem to be controlled by the cells' redox status. Interference with the activation or activity of NF-kappa B may be beneficial in suppressing toxic/septic shock, graft-vs-host reactions, acute inflammatory reactions, acute phase response, and radiation damage. The inhibition of NF-kappa B activation by antioxidants and specific protease inhibitors may provide a pharmacological basis for interfering with these acute processes.
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            Microglia and inflammation-mediated neurodegeneration: multiple triggers with a common mechanism.

            Michelle L. Block, Jau-Shyong Hong (2005)
            Inflammation, a common denominator among the diverse list of neurodegenerative diseases, has recently been implicated as a critical mechanism responsible for the progressive nature of neurodegeneration. Microglia are the resident innate immune cells in the central nervous system and produce a barrage of factors (IL-1, TNFalpha, NO, PGE2, superoxide) that are toxic to neurons. Evidence supports that the unregulated activation of microglia in response to environmental toxins, endogenous proteins, and neuronal death results in the production of toxic factors that propagate neuronal injury. In the following review, we discuss the common thread of microglial activation across numerous neurodegenerative diseases, define current perceptions of how microglia are damaging neurons, and explain how the microglial response to neuronal damage results in a self-propelling cycle of neuron death.
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              Blockade of microglial activation is neuroprotective in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine mouse model of Parkinson disease.

              Du Chu Wu, Vernice Jackson-Lewis, Miquel Vila … (2002)
              1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) damages the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway as seen in Parkinson's disease (PD), a common neurodegenerative disorder with no effective protective treatment. Consistent with a role of glial cells in PD neurodegeneration, here we show that minocycline, an approved tetracycline derivative that inhibits microglial activation independently of its antimicrobial properties, mitigates both the demise of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons and the formation of nitrotyrosine produced by MPTP. In addition, we show that minocycline not only prevents MPTP-induced activation of microglia but also the formation of mature interleukin-1beta and the activation of NADPH-oxidase and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), three key microglial-derived cytotoxic mediators. Previously, we demonstrated that ablation of iNOS attenuates MPTP-induced neurotoxicity. Now, we demonstrate that iNOS is not the only microglial-related culprit implicated in MPTP-induced toxicity because mutant iNOS-deficient mice treated with minocycline are more resistant to this neurotoxin than iNOS-deficient mice not treated with minocycline. This study demonstrates that microglial-related inflammatory events play a significant role in the MPTP neurotoxic process and suggests that minocycline may be a valuable neuroprotective agent for the treatment of PD.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Evid Based Complement Alternat Med
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Evid Based Complement Alternat Med
                Journal ID (publisher-id): ECAM
                Title: Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine : eCAM
                Publisher: Hindawi Publishing Corporation
                ISSN (Print): 1741-427X
                ISSN (Electronic): 1741-4288
                Publication date (Print): 2011
                Publication date (Electronic): 18 June 2011
                Publication date PMC-release: 18 June 2011
                Volume: 2011
                Electronic Location Identifier: 156810
                Affiliations
                Beijing Institute of Geriatrics and Department of Neurobiology and Neurology, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Diseases of Ministry of Education, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, #45 Changchun Street, Beijing 100053, China
                Author notes
                Article
                Publisher ID: nep075
                DOI: 10.1093/ecam/nep075
                PMC ID: 3136196
                PubMed ID: 19617199
                SO-VID: 94c5b10e-7867-4bf2-a8bc-ca0ae77b6ce2
                Copyright © Copyright © 2011 Ruiping Zhang et al.
                License:

                This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Date received : 20 January 2009
                Date accepted : 28 May 2009
                Categories
                Subject: Original Article

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Complementary & Alternative medicine
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Complementary & Alternative medicine

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