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      Thinking While Moving or Moving While Thinking – Concepts of Motor-Cognitive Training for Cognitive Performance Enhancement

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          Abstract

          The demographic change in industrial countries, with increasingly sedentary lifestyles, has a negative impact on mental health. Normal and pathological aging leads to cognitive deficits. This development poses major challenges on national health systems. Therefore, it is necessary to develop efficient cognitive enhancement strategies. The combination of regular physical exercise with cognitive stimulation seems especially suited to increase an individual’s cognitive reserve, i.e., his/her resistance to degenerative processes of the brain. Here, we outline insufficiently explored fields in exercise-cognition research and provide a classification approach for different motor-cognitive training regimens. We suggest to classify motor-cognitive training in two categories, (I) sequential motor-cognitive training (the motor and cognitive training are conducted time separated) and (II) simultaneous motor-cognitive training (motor and cognitive training are conducted sequentially). In addition, simultaneous motor-cognitive training may be distinguished based on the specific characteristics of the cognitive task. If successfully solving the cognitive task is not a relevant prerequisite to complete the motor-cognitive task, we would consider this type of training as (IIa) motor-cognitive training with additional cognitive task. In contrast, in ecologically more valid (IIb) motor cognitive training with incorporated cognitive task, the cognitive tasks are a relevant prerequisite to solve the motor-cognitive task. We speculate that incorporating cognitive tasks into motor tasks, rather than separate training of mental and physical functions, is the most promising approach to efficiently enhance cognitive reserve. Further research investigating the influence of motor(-cognitive) exercises with different quantitative and qualitative characteristics on cognitive performance is urgently needed.

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          The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis.

          There is a substantial body of literature related to the effects of a single session of exercise on cognitive performance. The premise underlying this research is that physiological changes in response to exercise have implications for cognitive function. This literature has been reviewed both narratively and meta-analytically and, although the research findings are mixed, researchers have generally concluded that there is a small positive effect. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to provide an updated comprehensive analysis of the extant literature on acute exercise and cognitive performance and to explore the effects of moderators that have implications for mechanisms of the effects. Searches of electronic databases and examinations of reference lists from relevant studies resulted in 79 studies meeting inclusion criteria. Consistent with past findings, analyses indicated that the overall effect was positive and small (g=0.097 n=1034). Positive and small effects were also found in all three acute exercise paradigms: during exercise (g=0.101; 95% confidence interval [CI]; 0.041-0.160), immediately following exercise (g=0.108; 95% CI; 0.069-0.147), and after a delay (g=0.103; 95% CI; 0.035-0.170). Examination of potential moderators indicated that exercise duration, exercise intensity, type of cognitive performance assessed, and participant fitness were significant moderators. In conclusion, the effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance are generally small; however, larger effects are possible for particular cognitive outcomes and when specific exercise parameters are used. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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            Exercise interventions for cognitive function in adults older than 50: a systematic review with meta-analysis

            Physical exercise is seen as a promising intervention to prevent or delay cognitive decline in individuals aged 50 years and older, yet the evidence from reviews is not conclusive.
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              Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design: Recent Developments

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Aging Neurosci
                Front Aging Neurosci
                Front. Aging Neurosci.
                Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1663-4365
                06 August 2018
                2018
                : 10
                : 228
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Research Group Neuroprotection, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) , Magdeburg, Germany
                [2] 2Department of Sport Science, Institute III, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg , Magdeburg, Germany
                [3] 3Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS) , Magdeburg, Germany
                [4] 4Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg , Magdeburg, Germany
                Author notes

                Edited by: Ashok Kumar, University of Florida, United States

                Reviewed by: Martin Gorges, Universität Ulm, Germany; Cartik Sharma, University of Toronto, Canada

                *Correspondence: Fabian Herold, fabian.herold@ 123456dzne.de
                Article
                10.3389/fnagi.2018.00228
                6089337
                30127732
                9ca95029-e9c9-4b4f-aedc-d91bb39ffde0
                Copyright © 2018 Herold, Hamacher, Schega and Müller.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 16 February 2018
                : 09 July 2018
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 168, Pages: 11, Words: 0
                Categories
                Neuroscience
                Perspective

                Neurosciences
                exercise,cognition,dementia,dual task,cognitive enhancement
                Neurosciences
                exercise, cognition, dementia, dual task, cognitive enhancement

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