Cognitive behavioural therapy for fear of falling and balance among older people: a systematic review and meta-analysis

We developed the Falls Efficacy Scale (FES), an instrument to measure fear of falling, based on the operational definition of this fear as "low perceived self-efficacy at avoiding falls during essential, nonhazardous activities of daily living." The reliability and validity of the FES were assessed in two samples of community-living elderly persons. The FES showed good test-retest reliability (Pearson's correlation 0.71). Subjects who reported avoiding activities because of fear of falling had higher FES scores, representing lower self-efficacy or confidence, than subjects not reporting fear of falling. The independent predictors of FES score were usual walking pace (a measure of physical ability), anxiety, and depression. The FES appears to be a reliable and valid method for measuring fear of falling. This instrument may be useful in assessing the independent contribution of fear of falling to functional decline among elderly people.

The relationships of fear of falling and fall-related efficacy with measures of basic and instrumental activities of daily living (ADL-IADL) and physical and social functioning were evaluated in a cohort of community-living elderly persons. Sociodemographic, medical, psychological, and physical performance (e.g., gait speed, timed hand function) measures were administered, during an in-home assessment, to a probability sample of 1,103 residents of New Haven, Connecticut, who were > or = 72 years of age. Falls and injuries in the past year, fear of falling, and responses to the Falls Efficacy Scale were also ascertained. The three dependent variables included a 10-item ADL-IADL scale, an 8-item social activity scale, and a scale of relative physical activity level. Among cohort members, 57% denied fear of falling whereas 24% acknowledged fear but denied effect on activity; 19% acknowledged avoiding activities because of fear of falling. Twenty-four percent of recent fallers vs 15% of nonfallers acknowledged this activity restriction (chi 2 = 13.1; p < .001). Mean fall-related efficacy score among the cohort was 84.9 (SD 20.5), 79.8 (SD 23.4), and 88.1 (SD 17.9) among fallers and nonfallers, respectively (p < or = .0001). Fall-related efficacy proved a potent independent correlate of ADL-IADL (partial correlation = .265, p < .001); physical (partial correlation = .234, p < .001); and social (partial correlation = .088, p < .01), functioning in multiple regression models after adjusting for sociodemographic, medical, psychological, and physical performance covariates as well as history of recent falls and injuries. Fear of falling was only marginally related (p = .05) with ADL-IADL functioning and was not associated with higher level physical or social functioning. The strong independent association between self-efficacy and function found in this study suggests that clinical programs in areas such as prevention, geriatric evaluation and management, and rehabilitation should attempt simultaneously to improve physical skills and confidence. Available knowledge of the factors influencing efficacy should guide the development of these efficacy-building programs.

Little is known about the prevalence rates and correlates of fear of falling and avoidance of activity due to fear of falling in the general population of community-living older people. To assess prevalence rates and study correlates of fear of falling and avoidance of activity due to fear of falling in this population. cross-sectional study in 4,031 community-living people aged > or =70 years. Fear of falling was reported by 54.3% and associated avoidance of activity by 379% of our population. Variables independently associated with fear of falling were: higher age (> or =80 years: odds ratio (OR) =1.79; 95% confidence interval (CI) =1.49-2.16), female gender (OR = 3.23; 95% CI = 2.76-3.79), poor perceived general health (OR = 6.93; 95% CI = 4.70-10.21) and multiple falls (OR = 5.72; 95% CI = 4.40-7.43). Higher age (> or =80 years: OR = 1.92; 95% CI = 1.59-2.32), poor perceived general health (OR = 11.91; 95% CI = 8.38-16.95) and multiple falls (OR = 4.64; 95% CI = 3.73-5.76) were also independently associated with avoidance of activity. Fear of falling and avoidance of activities due to fear of falling, were highly prevalent in our sample of community-living older people. Particularly, poor perceived general health showed a strong, independent association with both, fear of falling, and related avoidance of activity. Findings of our study may help health care professionals to identify people eligible for interventions aimed at reducing fear of falling and activity restriction.