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      The Role of the Gut Microbiome in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

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          Abstract

          Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the leading cause of chronic liver disease, with prevalence increasing in parallel with the rising incidence in obesity. Believed to be a “multiple-hit” disease, several factors contribute to NAFLD initiation and progression. Of these, the gut microbiome is gaining interest as a significant factor in NAFLD prevalence. In this paper, we provide an in-depth review of the progression of NAFLD, discussing the mechanistic modes of hepatocyte injury and the potential role for manipulation of the gut microbiome as a therapeutic strategy in the prevention and treatment of NAFLD.

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          Pleiotropic roles of bile acids in metabolism.

          Thomas Q de Aguiar Vallim, Elizabeth Tarling, Peter Edwards (2013)
          Enzymatic oxidation of cholesterol generates numerous distinct bile acids that function both as detergents that facilitate digestion and absorption of dietary lipids, and as hormones that activate four distinct receptors. Activation of these receptors alters gene expression in multiple tissues, leading to changes not only in bile acid metabolism but also in glucose homeostasis, lipid and lipoprotein metabolism, energy expenditure, intestinal motility and bacterial growth, inflammation, liver regeneration, and hepatocarcinogenesis. This review covers the roles of specific bile acids, synthetic agonists, and their cognate receptors in controlling these diverse functions, as well as their current use in treating human diseases. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
          Article 0 comments Cited 437 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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            Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: Mayo Clinic experiences with a hitherto unnamed disease.

            J. Ludwig, T Viggiano, D McGill … (1980)
            Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis is a poorly understood and hitherto unnamed liver disease that histologically mimics alcoholic hepatitis and that also may progress to cirrhosis. Described here are findings in 20 patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis of unknown cause. The biopsy specimens were characterized by the presence of striking fatty changes with evidence of lobular hepatitis, focal necroses with mixed inflammatory infiltrates, and, in most instances, Mallory bodies; Evidence of fibrosis was found in most specimens, and cirrhosis was diagnosed in biopsy tissue from three patients. The disease was more common in women. Most patients were moderately obese, and many had obesity-associated diseases, such as diabetes mellitus and cholelithiasis. Presence of hepatomegaly and mild abnormalities of liver function were common clinical findings. Currently, we know of no effective therapy.
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              Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a precursor of the metabolic syndrome.

              Amedeo Lonardo, Stefano Ballestri, Giulio Marchesini … (2015)
              The conventional paradigm of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease representing the "hepatic manifestation of the metabolic syndrome" is outdated. We identified and summarized longitudinal studies that, supporting the association of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease with either type 2 diabetes mellitus or metabolic syndrome, suggest that nonalcoholic fatty liver disease precedes the development of both conditions. Online Medical databases were searched, relevant articles were identified, their references were further assessed and tabulated data were checked. Although several cross-sectional studies linked nonalcoholic fatty liver disease to either diabetes and other components of the metabolic syndrome, we focused on 28 longitudinal studies which provided evidence for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease as a risk factor for the future development of diabetes. Moreover, additional 19 longitudinal reported that nonalcoholic fatty liver disease precedes and is a risk factor for the future development of the metabolic syndrome. Finally, molecular and genetic studies are discussed supporting the view that aetiology of steatosis and lipid intra-hepatocytic compartmentation are a major determinant of whether fatty liver is/is not associated with insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome. Data support the novel paradigm of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease as a strong determinant for the development of the metabolic syndrome, which has potentially relevant clinical implications for diagnosing, preventing and treating metabolic syndrome.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Med Sci (Basel)
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Med Sci (Basel)
                Journal ID (publisher-id): medsci
                Title: Medical Sciences
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2076-3271
                Publication date (Electronic): 05 June 2018
                Publication date Collection: June 2018
                Volume: 6
                Issue: 2
                Electronic Location Identifier: 47
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Inflammation & Immunity, M17, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; roychos@ 123456ccf.org
                [2 ]Department of Pediatric Gastroenterology, M17, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; conjeep@ 123456ccf.org
                [3 ]Director for Nutrition Research Center for Human Nutrition, M17, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: crescig@ 123456ccf.org
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5717-7099
                Article
                Publisher ID: medsci-06-00047
                DOI: 10.3390/medsci6020047
                PMC ID: 6024579
                PubMed ID: 29874807
                SO-VID: b8abcb44-efc0-413d-b2bb-9db38bec56e5
                Copyright © © 2018 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 30 April 2018
                Date accepted : 26 May 2018
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                Keywords: gut microbiome,nafld,probiotics,apoptosis,necroptosis
                Data availability:
                Keywords: gut microbiome, nafld, probiotics, apoptosis, necroptosis

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