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      BIOSYNTHESIS OF CONIFEROPHAGOUS BARK BEETLE PHEROMONES AND CONIFER ISOPRENOIDS: EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE AND SYNTHESIS

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          Abstract

          In this overview we compare the significance and evolutionary history of two interacting biological systems, the conifer-feeding bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) and their host conifers (Gymnospermae: Coniferales and Taxales). Isoprenoid natural products play key roles in the aggregation of the bark beetles and in the defence of the conifers. Our approach is to couple the most recent advances in the biochemical and molecular literature on these systems with ecological and behavioral data to compare monoterpenoid pheromone biosynthesis in scolytids with monoterpene biosynthesis in conifers. This synthesis reveals and evaluates the evolutionary redundancy occurring in the biochemical systems of the insect and host. Although host monoterpenes may be utilized directly or as derivatives in aggregation by scolytids, oxygenated monoterpenes that are behaviorally active for scolytids have been rarely identified from their coniferous hosts. De novomonoterpenoid biosynthesis in the Scolytidae, a process that is likely to be rare among metazoans, is substantially different from monoterpene biosynthesis in the conifers. The pathways appear to be shared only at the late-stage reactions that follow the formation of isopentenyl diphosphate. Little is known of the regulation of monoterpene biosynthesis in conifers, but scolytids positively regulate monoterpenoid biosynthesis using a sesquiterpenoid hormone, juvenile hormone, which does not occur in conifers. Little is known of the subcellular site of synthesis of monoterpenoids in scolytids, but conifer monoterpene biosynthesis is compartmentalized in the plastids, which do not occur in scolytid cells. In addition to bark beetles and conifers, the vertebrate model presents one of the few systems in which isoprenoid synthesis has been studied enough to provide a meaningful comparison. Possible unique features of monoterpenoid pheromone biosynthesis in scolytids relative to isoprenoid biosynthesis in vertebrates include the following: (1) a monoterpenoid end product; (2) a hypothetically scolytid-specific prenyl transferase (= geranyl diphosphate synthase) that catalyzes the condensation of two five-carbon (C 5) units, but does not catalyze additional condensation reactions with the C 5monomelic unit; (3) a scolytid-specific monoterpene (myrcene) synthase; and (4) a scolytid-specific, transcriptional-level sesquiterpenoid isoprenoid regulatory mechanism. Features 2 and 3 may be shared with conifers. This review also updates the 1985 landmark scientific paper by John Borden by listing the references and species of coniferophagous Scolytidae for which aggregation pheromones have been identified since 1985.

          Résumé

          Dans cette révision, nous comparons l’importance et l’évolution de deux systèmes biologiques interactifs, les scolytes (Coleoptera : Scolytidae) qui se nourrissent à même les conifères et les conifères (Gymnospermae : Coniferales et Taxales) qui leur servent d’hôtes. Les produits naturels isoprénoïdes jouent un rôle important dans les agrégations de scolytes et la défense des conifères. Nous avons choisi comme approche de combiner les dernières découvertes en biochimie et en biologie moléculaire sur ces systèmes avec des données écologiques et comportementales, de façon à comparer la biosynthèse des phéromones monoterpénoïdes chez les scolytes et la biosynthèse des monoterpènes des conifères. Cette synthèse démontre et évalue la redondance évolutive qui prévaut dans les systèmes biochimiques des insectes et de leurs hôtes. Bien que les monoterpènes puissent être utilisés par les scolytes directement ou comme dérivés dans les agrégations, les monoterpènes oxygénés des conifères qui élicitent une réponse comportementale de la part des scolytes ont rarement été identifiés. La biosynthèse de novodes monoterpénoïdes chez les Scolytidae, un processus qui est probablement rare chez les métazoaires, diffère substantiellement de la biosynthèse des monoterpènes chez les conifères. Les voies empruntées semblent les mêmes seulement au cours des derniers stades qui suivent la formation des diphosphates d’isopentényle. On connaît peu de choses au sujet de la régulation de la biosynthèse des monoterpènes chez les conifères, mais les scolytes contrôlent certainement la biosynthèse des monoterpénoïdes par l’intermédiaire d’une hormone sesquiterpénoïde, l’hormone juvénile, qui n’existe pas chez les conifères. On ne connaît pas très bien non plus le site de synthèse des monoterpénoïdes chez les scolytes, mais la biosynthèse des monoterpènes des conifères est compartimentée dans les plastes, que l’on ne retrouve pas dans les cellules des scolytes. En plus des scolytes et des conifères, le modèle vertébré possède l’un des rares systèmes dans lequel la synthèse des isoprénoïdes a été suffisamment étudiée pour permettre une comparaison intéressante. Parmi les caractéristiques possiblement exclusives à la biosynthèse des phéromones monoterpénoïdes chez les scolytes par comparaison à la biosynthèse des isoprénoïdes chez les vertébrés, il faut mentionner (1) l’obtention d’un produit final monoterpénoïde, (2) une prényl-transférase (= gényl-diphosphate synthase), hypothétiquement spécifique aux Scolytidae, qui catalyse la condensation de deux unités 5-carbone (C 5), mais ne catalyse pas les réactions additionnelles de condensation avec l’unité monomère C 5, (3) une monoterpène (myrcène) synthase spécifique aux Scolytidae et (4) un mécanisme régulateur du niveau de transcription sesquiterpénoïde-isoprénoïde qui soit spécifique aux scolytes. Les caratéristiques 2 et 3 se rencontrent peut-être aussi chez les conifères. Cette révision met à jour l’ouvrage classique de John Borden (Borden 1985) en présentant la liste des références et en énumérant les espèces de Scolytidae coniférophages chez lesquelles les phéromones d’agrégation ont été identifiées depuis 1985.

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          Butterflies and Plants: A Study in Coevolution

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            THE 1-DEOXY-D-XYLULOSE-5-PHOSPHATE PATHWAY OF ISOPRENOID BIOSYNTHESIS IN PLANTS.

            In plants the biosynthesis of prenyllipids and isoprenoids proceeds via two independent pathways: (a) the cytosolic classical acetate/mevalonate pathway for the biosynthesis of sterols, sesquiterpenes, triterpenoids; and (b) the alternative, non-mevalonate 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate (DOXP) pathway for the biosynthesis of plastidic isoprenoids, such as carotenoids, phytol (a side-chain of chlorophylls), plastoquinone-9, isoprene, mono-, and diterpenes. Both pathways form the active C5-unit isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) as the precursor from which all other isoprenoids are formed via head-to-tail addition. This review summarizes current knowledge of the novel 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate (DOXP) pathway for isopentenyl diphosphate biosynthesis, apparently located in plastids. The DOXP pathway of IPP formation starts from D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GA-3-P) and pyruvate, with DOXP-synthase as the starting enzyme. This pathway provides new insight into the regulation of chloroplast metabolism.
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              Insect pheromones--an overview of biosynthesis and endocrine regulation.

              This overview describes, compares, and attempts to unify major themes related to the biosynthetic pathways and endocrine regulation of insect pheromone production. Rather than developing and dedicating an entirely unique set of enzymes for pheromone biosynthesis, insects appear to have evolved to add one or a few tissue-specific auxiliary or modified enzymes that transform the products of "normal" metabolism to pheromone compounds of high stereochemical and quantitative specificity. This general understanding is derived from research on model species from one exopterygote insect order (Blattodea) and three endopterygote insect orders (Coleoptera, Diptera, and Lepidoptera). For instance, the ketone hydrocarbon contact sex pheromone of the female German cockroach, Blattella germanica, derives its origins from fatty acid biosynthesis, arising from elongation of a methyl-branched fatty acyl-CoA moiety followed by decarboxylation, hydroxylation, and oxidation. Coleopteran sex and aggregation pheromones also arise from modifications of fatty acid biosynthesis or other biosynthetic pathways, such as the isoprenoid pathway (e.g. Cucujidae, Curculionidae, and Scolytidae), or from simple transformations of amino acids or other highly elaborated host precursors (e.g. Scarabaeidae and Scolytidae). Like the sex pheromone of B. germanica, female-produced dipteran (e.g. Drosophilidae and Muscidae) sex pheromone components originate from elongation of fatty acyl-CoA moieties followed by loss of the carbonyl carbon and the formation of the corresponding hydrocarbon. Female-produced lepidopteran sex pheromones are also derived from fatty acids, but many moths utilize a species-specific combination of desaturation and chain-shortening reactions followed by reductive modification of the carbonyl carbon. Carbon skeletons derived from amino acids can also be used as chain initiating units and elongated to lepidopteran pheromones by this pathway (e.g. Arctiidae and Noctuidae). Insects utilize at least three hormonal messengers to regulate pheromone biosynthesis. Blattodean and coleopteran pheromone production is induced by juvenile hormone III (JH III). In the female common house fly, Musca domestica, and possibly other species of Diptera, it appears that during hydrocarbon sex pheromone biosynthesis, ovarian-produced ecdysteroids regulate synthesis by affecting the activities of one or more fatty acyl-CoA elongation enzyme(s) (elongases). Lepidopteran sex pheromone biosynthesis is often mediated by a 33 or 34 amino acid pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide (PBAN) through alteration of enzyme activities at one or more steps prior to or during fatty acid synthesis or during modification of the carbonyl group. Although a molecular level understanding of the regulation of insect pheromone biosynthesis is in its infancy, in the male California fivespined ips, Ips paraconfusus (Coleoptera: Scolytidae), JH III acts at the transcriptional level by increasing the abundance of mRNA for 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase, a key enzyme in de novo isoprenoid aggregation pheromone biosynthesis.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                applab
                The Canadian Entomologist
                Can Entomol
                Cambridge University Press (CUP)
                0008-347X
                1918-3240
                December 2000
                May 31 2012
                December 2000
                : 132
                : 06
                : 697-753
                Article
                10.4039/Ent132697-6
                ca971fa4-a077-4412-877a-0f1693f3fa4f
                © 2000
                History

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