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      Green conversion of graphene oxide to graphene nanosheets and its biosafety study

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          Abstract

          Chemical reduction of graphene oxide (GO) to graphene employs the use of toxic and environmentally harmful reducing agents, hindering mass production of graphene which is of tremendous technological importance. In this study we report a green approach to the synthesis of graphene, bio-reduced by crude polysaccharide. The polysaccharide reduces exfoliated GO to graphene at room temperature in an aqueous medium. Transmission electron microscopy image provides clear evidence for the formation of few layer graphene. Characterization of the resulting polysaccharide reduced GO by Raman spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and Energy dispersive X-ray analysis confirms reduction of GO to graphene. We also investigated the degree of biosafety of the reduced GO and found it to be safe under 100 μg/ml.

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          Most cited references43

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          Electric Field Effect in Atomically Thin Carbon Films

          We report a naturally-occurring two-dimensional material (graphene that can be viewed as a gigantic flat fullerene molecule, describe its electronic properties and demonstrate all-metallic field-effect transistor, which uniquely exhibits ballistic transport at submicron distances even at room temperature.
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            Two Dimensional Atomic Crystals

            We report free-standing atomic crystals that are strictly 2D and can be viewed as individual atomic planes pulled out of bulk crystals or as unrolled single-wall nanotubes. By using micromechanical cleavage, we have prepared and studied a variety of 2D crystals, including single layers of boron nitride, graphite, several dichalcogenides and complex oxides. These atomically-thin sheets (essentially gigantic 2D molecules unprotected from the immediate environment) are stable under ambient conditions, exhibit high crystal quality and are continuous on a macroscopic scale.
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              PEGylated nanographene oxide for delivery of water-insoluble cancer drugs.

              It is known that many potent, often aromatic drugs are water insoluble, which has hampered their use for disease treatment. In this work, we functionalized nanographene oxide (NGO), a novel graphitic material, with branched polyethylene glycol (PEG) to obtain a biocompatible NGO-PEG conjugate stable in various biological solutions, and used them for attaching hydrophobic aromatic molecules including a camptothecin (CPT) analogue, SN38, noncovalently via pi-pi stacking. The resulting NGO-PEG-SN38 complex exhibited excellent water solubility while maintaining its high cancer cell killing potency similar to that of the free SN38 molecules in organic solvents. The efficacy of NGO-PEG-SN38 was far higher than that of irinotecan (CPT-11), a FDA-approved water soluble SN38 prodrug used for the treatment of colon cancer. Our results showed that graphene is a novel class of material promising for biological applications including future in vivo cancer treatment with various aromatic, low-solubility drugs.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                3 February 2017
                2017
                : 12
                : 2
                : e0171607
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Molecular and Applied Mycology and Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
                [2 ]Department of Botany, Dinabandhu Andrews College, Garia, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
                [3 ]Cell Biology & Genetic Toxicology Laboratory, Centre of Advanced Study in Cell & Chromosome Research, Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
                [4 ]Department of Polymer Science & Technology, University College of Science & Technology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
                [5 ]Center for Research in Nanoscience & Nanotechnology, Technology Campus, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
                Institute of Materials Science, GERMANY
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                • Conceptualization: KA AM DC.

                • Data curation: KA AM DC.

                • Formal analysis: KA AM DC JS AD MG AB.

                • Investigation: KA AM DC JS AD MG AB.

                • Methodology: KA AM DC JS AD MG AB.

                • Project administration: KA AM DC.

                • Resources: KA AM DC.

                • Software: JS AD MG AB.

                • Supervision: KA AM DC.

                • Validation: KA AM DC.

                • Visualization: KA AM DC JS AD MG AB.

                • Writing – original draft: KA AM DC JS AD MG AB.

                • Writing – review & editing: KA AM DC JS AD MG AB.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1193-1823
                Article
                PONE-D-16-41805
                10.1371/journal.pone.0171607
                5291545
                28158272
                e38ca719-5d0b-4846-847c-ccf80dffee3a
                © 2017 Dasgupta et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 25 October 2016
                : 23 January 2017
                Page count
                Figures: 12, Tables: 0, Pages: 20
                Funding
                The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Biochemistry
                Glycobiology
                Polysaccharides
                Engineering and Technology
                Nanotechnology
                Nanoparticles
                Physical Sciences
                Materials Science
                Materials by Attribute
                Nanomaterials
                Engineering and Technology
                Nanotechnology
                Nanomaterials
                Research and analysis methods
                Bioassays and physiological analysis
                Biochemical analysis
                Colorimetric assays
                MTT assay
                Research and analysis methods
                Bioassays and physiological analysis
                Biochemical analysis
                Enzyme assays
                MTT assay
                Research and Analysis Methods
                Spectrum Analysis Techniques
                Spectrophotometry
                Cytophotometry
                Flow Cytometry
                Research and Analysis Methods
                Spectrum Analysis Techniques
                Infrared Spectroscopy
                Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
                Earth Sciences
                Mineralogy
                Minerals
                Graphite
                Physical Sciences
                Physics
                Classical Mechanics
                Vibration
                Custom metadata
                All relevant data are within the paper.

                Uncategorized
                Uncategorized

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