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      Arbovirosis and potential transmission blocking vaccines

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          Abstract

          Infectious diseases caused by arboviruses (viruses transmitted by arthropods) are undergoing unprecedented epidemic activity and geographic expansion. With the recent introduction of West Nile virus (1999), chikungunya virus (2013) and Zika virus (2015) to the Americas, stopping or even preventing the expansion of viruses into susceptible populations is an increasing concern. With a few exceptions, available vaccines protecting against arboviral infections are nonexistent and current disease prevention relies on vector control interventions. However, due to the emergence of and rapidly spreading insecticide resistance, different disease control methods are needed. A feasible method of reducing emerging tropical diseases is the implementation of vaccines that prevent or decrease viral infection in the vector. These vaccines are designated ‘ transmission blocking vaccines’, or TBVs. Here, we summarize previous TBV work, discuss current research on arboviral TBVs and present several promising TBV candidates.

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          Dengue, Urbanization and Globalization: The Unholy Trinity of the 21st Century

          Duane J. Gubler (2011)
          Dengue is the most important arboviral disease of humans with over half of the world’s population living in areas of risk. The frequency and magnitude of epidemic dengue have increased dramatically in the past 40 years as the viruses and the mosquito vectors have both expanded geographically in the tropical regions of the world. There are many factors that have contributed to this emergence of epidemic dengue, but only three have been the principal drivers: 1) urbanization, 2) globalization and 3) lack of effective mosquito control. The dengue viruses have fully adapted to a human-Aedes aegypti-human transmission cycle, in the large urban centers of the tropics, where crowded human populations live in intimate association with equally large mosquito populations. This setting provides the ideal home for maintenance of the viruses and the periodic generation of epidemic strains. These cities all have modern airports through which 10s of millions of passengers pass each year, providing the ideal mechanism for transportation of viruses to new cities, regions and continents where there is little or no effective mosquito control. The result is epidemic dengue. This paper discusses this unholy trinity of drivers, along with disease burden, prevention and control and prospects for the future.
          Article 0 comments Cited 395 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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            Updating the accounts: global mortality of the 1918-1920 "Spanish" influenza pandemic.

            Juergen Mueller, Justin S. Hogg (2001)
            The influenza pandemic of 1918-20 is recognized as having generally taken place in three waves, starting in the northern spring and summer of 1918. This pattern of three waves, however, was not universal: in some locations influenza seems to have persisted into or returned in 1920. The recorded statistics of influenza morbidity and mortality are likely to be a significant understatement. Limitations of these data can include nonregistration, missing records, misdiagnosis, and nonmedical certification, and may also vary greatly between locations. Further research has seen the consistent upward revision of the estimated global mortality of the pandemic, which a 1920s calculation put in the vicinity of 21.5 million. A 1991 paper revised the mortality as being in the range 24.7-39.3 million. This paper suggests that it was of the order of 50 million. However, it must be acknowledged that even this vast figure may be substantially lower than the real toll, perhaps as much as 100 percent understated.
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              Vaccine Adjuvants: from 1920 to 2015 and Beyond

              Alberta Di Pasquale, Scott Preiss, Fernanda Tavares Da Silva … (2015)
              The concept of stimulating the body’s immune response is the basis underlying vaccination. Vaccines act by initiating the innate immune response and activating antigen presenting cells (APCs), thereby inducing a protective adaptive immune response to a pathogen antigen. Adjuvants are substances added to vaccines to enhance the immunogenicity of highly purified antigens that have insufficient immunostimulatory capabilities, and have been used in human vaccines for more than 90 years. While early adjuvants (aluminum, oil-in-water emulsions) were used empirically, rapidly increasing knowledge on how the immune system interacts with pathogens means that there is increased understanding of the role of adjuvants and how the formulation of modern vaccines can be better tailored towards the desired clinical benefit. Continuing safety evaluation of licensed vaccines containing adjuvants/adjuvant systems suggests that their individual benefit-risk profile remains favorable. Adjuvants contribute to the initiation of the innate immune response induced by antigens; exemplified by inflammatory responses at the injection site, with mostly localized and short-lived effects. Activated effectors (such as APCs) then move to draining lymph nodes where they direct the type, magnitude and quality of the adaptive immune response. Thus, the right match of antigens and adjuvants can potentiate downstream adaptive immune responses, enabling the development of new efficacious vaccines. Many infectious diseases of worldwide significance are not currently preventable by vaccination. Adjuvants are the most advanced new technology in the search for new vaccines against challenging pathogens and for vulnerable populations that respond poorly to traditional vaccines.
              Article 0 comments Cited 225 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Berlin Londono-Renteria: blondono@uscmed.sc.edu
                Andrea Troupin: andrea.troupin@uscmed.sc.edu
                Tonya M. Colpitts: Tonya.Colpitts@uscmed.sc.edu
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Parasit Vectors
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Parasit Vectors
                Title: Parasites & Vectors
                Publisher: BioMed Central (London )
                ISSN (Electronic): 1756-3305
                Publication date (Electronic): 23 September 2016
                Publication date PMC-release: 23 September 2016
                Publication date Collection: 2016
                Volume: 9
                Electronic Location Identifier: 516
                Affiliations
                Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina USA
                Article
                Publisher ID: 1802
                DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1802-0
                PMC ID: 5035468
                PubMed ID: 27664127
                SO-VID: fcda93a1-900d-4e3a-ab1a-94f841aaed12
                Copyright © © The Author(s). 2016
                License:

                Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

                History
                Date received : 7 June 2016
                Date accepted : 14 September 2016
                Categories
                Subject: Review
                Custom metadata
                issue-copyright-statement © The Author(s) 2016

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Parasitology
                Keywords: transmission blocking vaccines,arbovirus,arthropod,vectors
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Parasitology
                Keywords: transmission blocking vaccines, arbovirus, arthropod, vectors

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