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      Autism risk factors: genes, environment, and gene-environment interactions

      research-article
      , MD, PhD , MD, PhD *
      Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
      Les Laboratoires Servier
      autism, risk, genetic, environment, interaction

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          Abstract

          The aim of this review is to summarize the key findings from genetic and epidemiological research, which show that autism is a complex disorder resulting from the combination of genetic and environmental factors. Remarkable advances in the knowledge of genetic causes of autism have resulted from the great efforts made in the field of genetics. The identification of specific alleles contributing to the autism spectrum has supplied important pieces for the autism puzzle. However, many questions remain unanswered, and new questions are raised by recent results. Moreover, given the amount of evidence supporting a significant contribution of environmental factors to autism risk, it is now clear that the search for environmental factors should be reinforced. One aspect of this search that has been neglected so far is the study of interactions between genes and environmental factors.

          Translated abstract

          El objetivo de esta revisión es resumir los principales hallazgos de la investigación genética y epidemiológca, que muestran que el autismo es un trastorno complejo que resulta de la combinatión de factores genéticos y ambientales. Gracias los grandes esfuerzos que se han realizado en el campo de la genética se cuenta con destacados avances en el conocimiento de este tipo de causas en el autismo. La identificatión de alelos específicos que contribuyen al espectro autista ha aportado piezas importantes para el puzzle del autismo. Sin embargo, aun hay muchas dudas sin responder y han surgido nuevas preguntas a partir de resultados recientes. Además, considerando la cantidad de evidencia que sustenta una contributión significativa de los factores ambientales al riesgo de autismo, hoy es claro que se debe reforzar la investigación de los factores ambientales. Un aspecto de esta investigación que se ha descuidado hasta ahora es el estudio de las interacciones entre los genes y los factores ambientales.

          Translated abstract

          Le but de cet article est de résumer les résultats importants de la recherche génétique et épidémiologique qui montrent que l'autisme est un trouble complexe issu de la combinaison de facteurs génétiques et environnementaux. Les grands efforts réalisés dans le domaine de la génétique ont permis des progrès remarquables dans la connaissance des causes génétiques de l'autisme. L'identification d'allèles spécifiques contribuant au développement des troubles du spectre autistique a fourni des pièces importantes pour le puzzle de l'autisme. Cependant, de nombreuses questions restent sans réponse et de nouvelles sont soulevées par des résultats récents. Par ailleurs, les résultats suggérant une participation significative des facteurs environnementaux au risque d'autisme, engagent à maintenant insister sur leur recherche. L'étude des interactions entre les gènes et les facteurs environnementaux est un aspect de la recherche qui a été négligé jusqu'à maintenant.

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          Most cited references82

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          Structural variation of chromosomes in autism spectrum disorder.

          Structural variation (copy number variation [CNV] including deletion and duplication, translocation, inversion) of chromosomes has been identified in some individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), but the full etiologic role is unknown. We performed genome-wide assessment for structural abnormalities in 427 unrelated ASD cases via single-nucleotide polymorphism microarrays and karyotyping. With microarrays, we discovered 277 unbalanced CNVs in 44% of ASD families not present in 500 controls (and re-examined in another 1152 controls). Karyotyping detected additional balanced changes. Although most variants were inherited, we found a total of 27 cases with de novo alterations, and in three (11%) of these individuals, two or more new variants were observed. De novo CNVs were found in approximately 7% and approximately 2% of idiopathic families having one child, or two or more ASD siblings, respectively. We also detected 13 loci with recurrent/overlapping CNV in unrelated cases, and at these sites, deletions and duplications affecting the same gene(s) in different individuals and sometimes in asymptomatic carriers were also found. Notwithstanding complexities, our results further implicate the SHANK3-NLGN4-NRXN1 postsynaptic density genes and also identify novel loci at DPP6-DPP10-PCDH9 (synapse complex), ANKRD11, DPYD, PTCHD1, 15q24, among others, for a role in ASD susceptibility. Our most compelling result discovered CNV at 16p11.2 (p = 0.002) (with characteristics of a genomic disorder) at approximately 1% frequency. Some of the ASD regions were also common to mental retardation loci. Structural variants were found in sufficiently high frequency influencing ASD to suggest that cytogenetic and microarray analyses be considered in routine clinical workup.
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            Association between microdeletion and microduplication at 16p11.2 and autism.

            Autism spectrum disorder is a heritable developmental disorder in which chromosomal abnormalities are thought to play a role. As a first component of a genomewide association study of families from the Autism Genetic Resource Exchange (AGRE), we used two novel algorithms to search for recurrent copy-number variations in genotype data from 751 multiplex families with autism. Specific recurrent de novo events were further evaluated in clinical-testing data from Children's Hospital Boston and in a large population study in Iceland. Among the AGRE families, we observed five instances of a de novo deletion of 593 kb on chromosome 16p11.2. Using comparative genomic hybridization, we observed the identical deletion in 5 of 512 children referred to Children's Hospital Boston for developmental delay, mental retardation, or suspected autism spectrum disorder, as well as in 3 of 299 persons with autism in an Icelandic population; the deletion was also carried by 2 of 18,834 unscreened Icelandic control subjects. The reciprocal duplication of this region occurred in 7 affected persons in AGRE families and 4 of the 512 children from Children's Hospital Boston. The duplication also appeared to be a high-penetrance risk factor. We have identified a novel, recurrent microdeletion and a reciprocal microduplication that carry substantial susceptibility to autism and appear to account for approximately 1% of cases. We did not identify other regions with similar aggregations of large de novo mutations. Copyright 2008 Massachusetts Medical Society.
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              Mutations of the X-linked genes encoding neuroligins NLGN3 and NLGN4 are associated with autism.

              Many studies have supported a genetic etiology for autism. Here we report mutations in two X-linked genes encoding neuroligins NLGN3 and NLGN4 in siblings with autism-spectrum disorders. These mutations affect cell-adhesion molecules localized at the synapse and suggest that a defect of synaptogenesis may predispose to autism.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                INSERM U 955, IMRB, Psychiatry Genetics, Creteil, France; FondaMental Foundation, Créteil, France
                INSERM U 955, IMRB, Psychiatry Genetics, Creteil, France; FondaMental Foundation, Créteil, France ; APHP, Henri Mondor-Albert Chenevier Hospitals, Department of Psychiatry, Creteil, France; Paris-Est University, Faculty of Medicine, IFR10, Creteil, France
                Journal
                Dialogues Clin Neurosci
                Dialogues Clin Neurosci
                Dialogues Clin Neurosci
                Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
                Les Laboratoires Servier (France )
                1294-8322
                1958-5969
                September 2012
                September 2012
                : 14
                : 3
                : 281-292
                Affiliations
                INSERM U 955, IMRB, Psychiatry Genetics, Creteil, France; FondaMental Foundation, Créteil, France
                INSERM U 955, IMRB, Psychiatry Genetics, Creteil, France; FondaMental Foundation, Créteil, France ; APHP, Henri Mondor-Albert Chenevier Hospitals, Department of Psychiatry, Creteil, France; Paris-Est University, Faculty of Medicine, IFR10, Creteil, France
                Author notes
                Article
                10.31887/DCNS.2012.14.3/pchaste
                3513682
                23226953
                490c3b48-76bc-434d-a69b-b1fad74ca2d9
                Copyright: © 2012 LLS

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Categories
                Clinical Research

                Neurosciences
                interaction,environment,risk,autism,genetic
                Neurosciences
                interaction, environment, risk, autism, genetic

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